Galactolipid transformations and photochemical activities of spinach chloroplasts

Comparison of galactolipase activity and free fatty acid levels in chloroplasts of chill-sensitive and chill-resistant plants

Galactolipase activity in chloroplasts of several chill-resistant plants was found to be very low [0.02-0.13 mumol free fatty acid (FFA) liberated min-1 mg protein-1] or not detected. The same phenomenon was observed for soybean and members of the Cucurbitaceae such as cucumber, pumpkin, melon and squash. Since, following cold storage of cucumber leaves, the levels of monogalactosyl-diacylglycerol and digalactosyl-diacylglycerol in chloroplasts decrease while those of FFA accumulate it seems likely that in these typical chill-sensitive plants galactolipase is present but inactivated during isolation procedure. The low galactolipase activity in chloroplasts was accompanied by a relatively low FFA content ranging from 0.05 mumol to 0.30 mumol FFA mg chlorophyll (Chl)-1. However, both pea and horse bean chloroplasts (with low galactolipase activity) exhibit about 0.45 mumol FFA mg Chl-1. Elevated galactolipase activity was observed in chloroplasts of most chill-sensitive species (ranging from 0.31 mumol to 1.32 mumol FFA liberated min-1 mg protein-1) as well as in chloroplasts from broad bean, a member of a chill-resistant species (1.26 mumol FFA liberated min-1 mg protein-1). In addition in this latter group of plants FFA level in chloroplasts often did not fit the galactolipase activity. The results suggest that there exists a tendency for chilling tolerance of plants to decrease both galactolipase activity and FFA level. However, in some plant species with elevated galactolipase activity the chloroplast FFA level does not correlate with enzyme activity.

The action of lipases on chloroplast membranes I. The release of plastocyanin from galactolipase-treated thylakoid membranes

Bean chloroplasts treated with galactolipase (lipolytic acyl hydrolase) isolated from bean leaves showed an inhibition of photosystem I activity as measured by methyl viologen-mediated oxygen uptake and NADP(+) photoreduction. This inhibition was partially reversed by exogenous plastocyanin added to galactolipase-treated thylakoid membranes. Galactolipase released substantial amounts of endogenous plastocyanin (about 40%) from bean chloroplasts. The results are discussed with regard to the localization of plastocyanin in thylakoid membranes.

The stability of electron transport in in vitro chloroplast membranes

The stability and stabilization of the electron transport system of chloroplast membranes under physiological conditions of temperature and illumination were studied in relation to two separate and often competing mechanisms of decay. Photochemical inactivation (photoinhibition) of the electron transport system of ageing spinach chloroplasts was not normally found to limit stability even at saturating light intensities. Only when the membranes were protected from dark (fatty acid) inhibition did photoinhibition limit stability.Electron transport could be partially protected from dark inhibition by the addition of high concentrations of recrystallized (i.e. fatty acid free) bovine serum albumin, ovalbumin, polyethyleneimine cellulose, Biomesh SM2 beads or with Ficoll 400. Some improvement in stability was achieved with N,N, dimethylphenethylamine but other esterase and phospholipase inhibitors were ineffective in preventing thermal inactivation.Photoinhibition was apparently delayed by phenazine methosulphate under certain conditions but was unaffected either by artificial scavengers of reactive oxygen species (butylated hydroxytoluene), and 1,4-diazobycyclo (2, 2, 2 octane) or by natural scavengers which constitute part of the in vivo protective mechanism (α-tocopherol, β-carotene, SOD, catalase and glutathione) or by anaerobic incubation. Photoinhibition may therefore be by a separate mechanism which does not initially involve free radical damage.

The relationship between thylakoid stacking and salt induced chlorophyll fluorescence changes

Salt induced chlorophyll fluorescence increase and thylakoid stacking have been measured under various conditions. 1. Aging of pea chloroplasts led to a loss of salt induced chlorophyll fluorescence increase and thylakoid stacking which is suggested to be due to a decrease in membrane fluidity as measured by 1,6-diphenylhextriene fluorescence polarization. 2. The aging treatment was accompanied by a decreased in surface charge density as indicated by chloroplast electrophoretic mobility measurements. 3. Lowering of the temperature to about 0 degrees C retarded the time courses of salt induced stacking and chlorophyll fluorescence increase. 4. Like aging, addition of linolenic acid led to an inhibition of the salt induced fluorescence and stacking phenomena but in this case there was a concomitant increase in electrophoretic mobility without any detectable change in the polarization of 1,6-diphenylhextriene fluorescence. 5. Maximum stacking occurred in both aged and fresh chloroplasts in a low salt medium at about pH 4.3 and the time course for the pH induced process was rapid and relatively temperature insensitive when compared with salt induced stacking. 6. The chlorophyll a/chlorophyll b ratio was lower for salt induced 'grana' than for pH induced 'grana'. 7. The results are discussed in terms of the hypothesis that changes in the lateral interaction of membrane pigment-protein complexes underlie the salt induced chlorophyll fluorescence increase and thylakoid stacking. It is argued that electrostatic screening by cations leads to the formation of domains of low-charge, fluorescent pigment-protein complexes, seggregated from domains of high-charge, quenching complexes, resulting in a increase in chlorophyll fluorescence yield and stacking at low-charge regions on adjacent membranes. In contrast to this, it is argued that the pH induced stacking occurs because of electrostatic neutralization, a mechanism which would not be expected to induce domain formation and associated chlorophyll fluorescence changes.

Photosynthetic apparatus in chilling-sensitive plants. VII. Comparison of the effect of galactolipase treatment of chloroplasts and cold-dark storage of leaves on photosynthetic electron flow

1. Both galactolipase treatment of tomato chloroplasts and the cold and dark storage of leaves induce a large degradation of chloroplast monogalactosyl diacylglycerol and digalactosyl diacylglycerol as well as an accumulatwon of free fatty acids accompanied by the inhibition of Hill reaction activity with water as electron donor. All these changes are reversed upon illumination of the leaves. 2. Inhibition of diphenylcarbazide (DPC) leads to dichlorophenolindophenol (DCIP) activity by free fatty acids released following galactolipase treatment of chloroplasts isolated from either fresh or cold and dark-stored and illuminated leaves is almost completely reversed by either bovine serum albumin or Mn2+, while that in chloroplasts from the cold and dark-stored leaves is reversed by bovine serum albumin and Mn2+ only up to about 60 and 25%, respectively. 3. Fatty acids released during the treatment of chloroplasts with galactolipase affect the electron transport mainly in the same site as exogenous unsaturated fatty acids do, while those released due to endogenous galactolipase activity appear to affect also in the region damaged by either Tris washing of chloroplasts or the cold and dark treatment of leaves. 4. The loss of manganese from chloroplasts (Kaniuga, Z., Zabek, J. and Sochanowicz, B. (1978) Planta 144, 49-56) seems to be the main reason of cold and dark-induced inactivation of Hill reaction activity in chloroplasts of chilling-sensitive plants, while both the degradation of galactolipids and the accumulation of fatty acids are of secondary importance.

The modulation of membrane fluidity by hydrogenation processes. III. The hydrogenation of biomembranes of spinach chloroplasts and a study of the effect of this on photosynthetic electron transport

A method is reported for the in situ modification of the lipids of isolated spinach chloroplast membranes. The technique is based on a direct hydrogenation of the lipid double bonds in the presence of the catalyst, chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium (I). The pattern of hydrogenation achieved suggests that the catalyst distributes amongst all of the membranes. The polyunsaturated lipids within the membranes are hydrogenated at a faster rate and at an earlier stage than are the monoenoic lipids. Whilst addition of the catalyst to the chloroplast causes an initial 10--20% decrease in Hill activity, saturation of up to 40% of the double bonds present can be accomplished without causing further significant alterations in photosynthetic electron transport processes or marked morphological changes of the chloroplast structure as observed in the electron microscope.

Photosynthetic apparatus in chilling-sensitive plants : II. Changes in free fatty acid composition and photoperoxidation in chloroplasts following cold storage and illumination of leaves in relation to Hill reaction activity

The composition of free fatty acids (FFA) in relation to Hill reaction activity and photoperoxidation of lipids was studied in chloroplasts isolated from fresh, cold and dark-stored as well as illuminated leaves of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., Phaseolus vulgaris L. and Cucumis sativus L. Following the cold and dark-storage of leaves the loss of Hill reaction activity is accompanied by approximately a 5-fold increase in the amount of FFA and by an increase in the percentage of unsaturated FFA, particularly that of linolenic acid. Illumination of the cold- and dark-stored leaves restores both Hill reaction activity and the content and composition of chloroplast FFA. Following the second and third cycles of cold storage and illumination of leaves the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids in chloroplasts increases while that of saturated ones decreases despite of the significant restoration of Hill reaction activity. Since the illumination of cold-stored leaves results in peroxidation of inhibitory fatty acids it seems likely that this phenomenon could, at least partially, be responsible for the restoration of Hill reaction activity. Inhibition of Hill reaction activity by exogenous linolenic acid in chloroplasts of fresh, cold-stored as well as cold-stored and illuminated leaves could be reversed following the incubation of chloroplast suspension with BSA, however only to a value measured in the absence of unsaturated fatty acid. All these results indicate that the inhibition of Hill reaction activity due to the cold and dark storage of leaves is caused by both inhibitory FFA released from chloroplast lipids as well as by damage to the thylakoid structure affecting the electron transport within photosystem II.

Photosynthetic apparatus in chilling-sensitive plants : I. Reactivation of hill reaction activity inhibited on the cold and dark storage of detached leaves and intact plants

Chloroplast isolated from the detached leaves of chilling-sensitive plants-Phaseolus vulgaris L., Cucumis sativus L., and Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.-stored in the cold for 2-4 days in the dark exhibit an almost complete loss of Hill reaction activity, which on illumination of leaves is restored to almost the original level. In contrast, illumination of either chloroplast suspensions or homogenates from leaves stored in the cold in the dark does not cause restoration of electron transport. Cold and dark storage of leaves of chilling-sensitive plants affects the electron transport before the site of electron donation by diphenylcarbazide and results in an increased sensitivity of the Hill reaction of isolated chloroplasts to exogenous linolenic acid. Illumination of leaves reverses these processes. When tomato plants are exposed to 0°C in intermittent light, Hill reaction activity is not affected while dark storage either at 0°C or 25°C results in a significant decrease of Hill reaction activity after 2-3 days followed by the restoration of electron transport to the original level after 1 or 2 days of the prolonged dark storage of plants. When tomato plants are stored either at 0°C in intermittent light, at 0°C in dark, or at 25°C in dark the sensitivity of the Hill reaction to exogenous linolenic acid remains increased despite a significant restoration of this activity. In conclusion, both darkness and the detachment of leaves from the plant are more effective than cold treatment in damaging photosystem II whereas both light and intact structure of the cell are required for restoration of Hill reaction activity in chloroplasts following cold and dark storage of detached leaves.

[The effect of phospholipase D on photochemical activity and lipid composition of isolated spinach chloroplasts]

Phospholipase D shows short and longtime effects on photochemical activity of isolated spinach chloroplasts. After very short incubations with Phospholipase D (Pl D) the Ferricyanide reduction and Dichlorphenol-idenophenol reduction are 70% to 90% higher than in control chloroplasts. In uncoupled chloroplasts the reduction rates are about 20% higher than in the controls. After one h of incubation time with Phospholipase D the photochemical activity is inhibited and now shows only 40% of the control activity. The effect of Phospholipase D on uncoupled chloroplasts is somewhat lower. After two h of incubation time the control activity decreases to about 50% whereas the PLD-effected activity is reduced to 10% of the initial rates. Cyclic phosphorylation is inhibited by Phospholipase D, presumably because Phospholipase D exerts an uncoupling effect.

Requirement of galactolipids for photosystem I activity in lyophilized spinach chloroplasts

1. The effect of monogalactosyl diacylglycerol and digalactosyl diacylglycerol on reconstitution of Photosystem I activity in heptane-extracted and galactolipase-treated spinach chloroplasts was investigated. 2. Both galactolipids, in a molar ratio with chlorophyll of 2.5, partially restored Photosystem I activity in heptane-extracted chloroplasts. An addition of saturating amounts of plastocyanin caused complete reactivation of Photosystem I. 3. Similarly, with galactolipase-treated chloroplasts, both galactolipids partially restored Phostosystem I activity and additional amounts of plastocyanin were required for complete reactivation. 4. The action of galactolipids on partial reconstitution of Photosystem I supports the suggestion of their structural role in the restoration of thylakoid membranes.

Purification and properties of a lipid acyl-hydrolase from potato tubers

1. A pure lipid acyl-hydrolase was prepared from potato tubers by acetone precipitation, Sephadex G-100 and DEAE-Sephadex A-50 column chromatography, and by electrofocusing. 2. The purified enzyme was an acidic protein of pI 5.0 and molecular weight of about 70 000. Km values were 0.38 mM for monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and 1.7 mM for phosphatidylcholine. 3. The hydrolytic activity of the enzyme on different substrates was determined. The relative rates were acylsterylglucoside greater than monogalactosyldiacylglycerol greater than monogalactosylmonoacylglycerol greater than digalactosyldiacylglycerol greater than diagalactosylmonoacylglycerol, while the rates for phospholipids were lysophosphatidylcholine greater than phosphatidylcholine greater than lysophosphatidylethanolamine greater than phosphatidylethanolamine. 4. Analyses of enzymatic hydrolysis products suggested that a single enzyme had both galactolipase and phospholipase activities, and for the phospholipids it showed activities similar to phospholipase B and glycerylphosphorylcholine diesterase. 5. A competitive relation was found between monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and phosphatidylcholine as substrates of the enzyme, indicating that the active sites for both substrates may be the same. 6. It was suggested that histidine and probably serine residues were important to the enzymic activity, and that a tyrosine residue might be involved in the activity as an accessory component.

Photosensitized inhibitor formation in isolated, aging chloroplasts

The possible mechanism which leads to inactivation phenomena at high intensities of blue light during the color-sensitive phase in the time course of the Hill reaction was investigated in more detail. The following results were obtained: a) The inhibition of the Hill reaction is also observed during but not prior to the color-sensitive state if the supernatant of a blue-illuminated chloroplast suspension is used as a medium for a fresh assay in red light. b) Addition of linolenic acid, which leads to a stimulation of electron transport in intact chloroplasts, intensifies the inhibition at the blue-light-sensitive stage. c) The content of malondialdehyde, an indicator for free-radical-type breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids, increases selectively after blue-light exposure during the color-sensitive phase of the Hill reaction. This result was obtained with both the thiobarbituric-acid test and fluorescence measurements of Schiff-base type conjugates. d) The gas chromatograms of total chloroplast lipids show a different spectrum for plastids exposed to blue light when compared to a non-illuminated control sample. The changes imply alterations in the composition of long-chain fatty acids. These results warrant the conclusion that the blue-light inhibition is closely linked to fatty-acid breakdown which is sensitized by light absorbed by pigments detached from the photosynthetic centers during the process of chloroplast aging in vitro.

Environmental control of photosynthetic enhancement

The transition from granular to homogeneous chloroplasts in vivo in Egeria densa caused by environmental conditions was paralleled by a decrease in photosynthetic enhancement from 30 percent to nearly zero. The drop in enhancement can be explained either by a change in the partitioning of light energy between the two photosystems or a change to a single photosystem.

Transient light effects in the Hill reaction of disintegrating chloroplasts in vitro

The transient color sensitivity observed earlier in the Hill reaction of disintegrating chloroplasts (red-blue effect) was studied in detail. I. The effect was measured mainly as rates of the reduction of DPIP. It could be followed also by ferricyanide reduction or oxygen evolution. It is independent of the composition of the suspension medium and not influenced by uncouplers like methylamine. 2. Light intensity curves taken before, during and after the development of the blue decay show its presence at all light intensities. The action spectrum shows a loss of efficiency for the region λ 450-500 nm. 3. A second disintegration step which usually follows an hour later and lowers the rates in red light, has similar kinetic characteristics, but so far no particular spectral region could be implicated. 4. With ultrasonic treatment lasting from a few seconds to several minutes the double sequence of the natural loss of activity in blue and then in red light can be evoked at any time. 5. To explain these observations we assume that initially the transfer of energy from blue absorbing accessory pigments to chlorophyll is interrupted and that the same kind of pigment separation happens a second time, some-what later, among the chlorophyll pigments. The moment the light energy absorbed by the detached pigment cannot be utilized in a normal way, it promotes destructive sensitization processes which attack part of the electron transport system. The damage to the pigment system appears to occur in system II. A preliminary fluorescence curve also supports this assumption. System I (methyl red reduction) suffers through destruction of components of the electron transport chain.