[THE EXCRETION OF AMMONIA BY A FRESH WATER TELEOST: CYPRINUS CARPIO L]

The Non-ureogenic Stinging Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis, Actively Excretes Ammonia With the Help of Na+/K+-ATPase When Exposed to Environmental Ammonia

The stinging catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis, can tolerate high concentrations of environmental ammonia. Previously, it was regarded as ureogenic, having a functional ornithine-urea cycle (OUC) that could be up-regulated during ammonia-loading. However, contradictory results indicated that increased urea synthesis and switching to ureotelism could not explain its high ammonia tolerance. Hence, we re-examined the effects of exposure to 30 mmol l^–1 NH₄Cl on its ammonia and urea excretion rates, and its tissue ammonia and urea concentrations. Our results confirmed that H. fossilis did not increase urea excretion or accumulation during 6 days of ammonia exposure, and lacked detectable carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I or III activity in its liver. However, we discovered that it could actively excrete ammonia during exposure to 8 mmol l^–1 NH₄Cl. As active ammonia excretion is known to involve Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (Nka) indirectly in several ammonia-tolerant fishes, we also cloned various nkaα-subunit isoforms from the gills of H. fossilis, and determined the effects of ammonia exposure on their branchial transcripts levels and protein abundances. Results obtained revealed the presence of five nkaα-subunit isoforms, with nkaα1b having the highest transcript level. Exposure to 30 mmol l^–1 NH₄Cl led to significant increases in the transcript levels of nkaα1b (on day 6) and nkaα1c1 (on day 1 and 3) as compared with the control. In addition, the protein abundances of Nkaα1c1, Nkaα1c2, and total NKAα increased significantly on day 6. Therefore, the high environmental ammonia tolerance of H. fossilis is attributable partly to its ability to actively excrete ammonia with the aid of Nka.

The swamp eel Monopterus albus reduces endogenous ammonia production and detoxifies ammonia to glutamine during 144 h of aerial exposure

The swamp eel Monopterus albus inhabits muddy ponds, swamps, canals and rice fields, where it can burrow within the moist earth during the dry summer season, thus surviving for long periods without water. This study aimed to elucidate the strategies adopted by M. albus to defend against endogenous ammonia toxicity when kept out of water for 144 h (6 days). Like any other fish, M. albus has difficulties in excreting ammonia during aerial exposure. In fact, the rates of ammonia and urea excretions decreased significantly in specimens throughout the 144 h of aerial exposure. At 144 h, the ammonia and urea excretion rates decreased to 20% and 25%, respectively, of the corresponding control values. Consequently, ammonia accumulated to high levels in the tissues and plasma of the experimental specimens. Apparently, M. albus has developed relatively higher ammonia tolerance at the cellular and subcellular levels compared with many other teleost fish. Since the urea concentration in the tissues of specimens exposed to air remained low, urea synthesis was apparently not adopted as a strategy to detoxify endogenous ammonia during 144 h of aerial exposure. Instead, ammonia produced through amino acid catabolism was detoxified to glutamine, leading to the accumulation of glutamine in the body during the first 72 h of aerial exposure. Complementing the increased glutamine formation was a significant increase in glutamine synthetase activity in the liver of specimens exposed to air for 144 h. Formation of glutamine is energetically expensive. It is probably because M. albus remained relatively inactive on land that the reduction in energy demand for locomotory activity facilitated its exploitation of glutamine formation to detoxify endogenous ammonia. There was a slight decrease in the glutamine level in the body of the experimental animals between 72 h and 144 h of aerial exposure, which indicates that glutamine might not be the end product of nitrogen metabolism. In addition, these results suggest that suppression of endogenous ammonia production, possibly through reductions in proteolysis and amino acid catabolism, acts as the major strategy to avoid ammonia intoxication in specimens exposed to air for >/=72 h. It is concluded that glutamine formation and reduction in ammonia production together served as effective strategies to avoid the excessive accumulation of ammonia in the body of M. albus during 144 h of aerial exposure. However, these strategies might not be adequate to sustain the survival of M. albus in the mud for longer periods during drought because ammonia and glutamine concentrations had already built up to high levels in the body of specimens exposed to air for 144 h.

THE MECHANISM OF SODIUM AND CHLORIDE UPTAKE BY THE GILLS OF A FRESH-WATER FISH, CARASSIUS AURATUS. II. EVIDENCE FOR NH4 ION/NA ION AND HCO3 ION/C1 ION EXCHANGES

The addition of ammonium ions to the external medium results in an inhibition of the sodium influx and net uptake in Carassius auratus, while intraperitoneal injection of ammonium produces the opposite effect. The simultaneous chloride balance is not significantly affected by these treatments. The addition of bicarbonate ions to the external medium results in a reduction of the influx and net flux of chloride, while injection of bicarbonate produces the opposite effect. The simultaneous sodium balance is not significantly altered. The effects of the external additions are reversible after elimination of the excess ammonium or bicarbonate ions by rinsing. Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase in the gill by injection of acetazoleamide produces a simultaneous inhibition of both sodium and chloride exchanges. These results confirm the hypothesis of an exchange of sodium for ammonium, and of bicarbonate for chloride across the gill. A tentative schematic representation of the ionic absorption mechanisms in the branchial cell of the fresh-water teleosts is given. Similarities with other biological membranes and especially with the renal tubule are pointed out.

Nonfaecal and faecal losses of the marine teleost, Lichia amia (Linnaeus, 1758), feeding on live southern mullet, Liza richardsonii (Smith, 1846)

1. Nonfaecal and faecal losses of Lichia amia were determined under controlled laboratory conditions at 15, 20 and 25 degrees C. 2. Ammonia-N was the major form of nonfaceal nitrogen excreted by L. amia and excretion rates were temperature-dependent. 3. The mass component b of the mass/ammonia-N excretion equation was temperature-independent and ranged from 0.63-0.65 and from 0.66-0.73 for starved and fed fish, respectively. 4. Mean nonfaecal energy loss (exogenous plus endogenous) was 3.78 +/- 1.99% of the ingested energy. 5. Assimilation efficiencies varied between individual fish and ranged from 61.24-93.79% (mean 80.76 +/- 7.14%) for dry matter and 87.52-98.22% (mean 94.09 +/- 2.22%) for energy. 6. The mean nonfaecal and faecal energy loss was 23.11 +/- 1.67% of the ingested energy.

Ammonia distribution and excretion in fish

This paper reviews the literature concerning ammonia production, storage and excretion in fish. Ammonia is the end product of protein catabolism and is stored in the body of fish in high concentrations relative to basal excretion rates. Ammonia, if allowed to accumulate, is toxic and is converted to less toxic compounds or excreted. Like other weak acids and bases, ammonia is distributed between tissue compartments in relation to transmembrane pH gradients. NH3 is generally equilibrated between compartments but NH4 (+) is distributed according to pH. Ammonia is eliminated from the blood upon passage through the gills. The mechanisms of branchial ammonia excretion vary between different species of fish and different environments, and primarily involves NH3 passive diffusion and NH4 (+)/Na(+) exchange. Water chemistry near the gill surface may also be important to ammonia excretion, but a more accurate measurement of the NH3 gradient across the gill epithelium is required before a more detailed analysis of NH3 and NH4 (+) excretion can be made.

The effect of various ambient ammonia concentrations on the nitrogen metabolism of carp fry (Cyprinus carpio L.)

Authors studied how 125, 375 and 625 micrograms/l amounts of NH4Cl added to the water influenced the ammonia excretion of carp fry with an average weight of 2.4 g, compared to the control. During the course of the experiments the NH4N concentration, the pH and the temperature were measured for three days, twice daily. On the basis of our results the threshold concentration exerting harmful effects on the ammonia household of carp fry (disturbing the normal rate of metabolism in the fishes and decreasing their growth rate) is between 125 and 375 micrograms/l. NH4H (50-100 micrograms/l NH3). The ammonia concentrations exceeding 375 micrograms/l NH4+ (and 100 micrograms/l NH3, respectively) can be regarded as undesirable and harmful in frybreeding fish ponds. With regard to the ambient ammonia, a daily cycle developed in the excretion of ammonia: contrary to the control, a minimum in ammonia excretion was measured in the morning, while a maximum was measured in the afternoon.

Aminotransferase activity in the liver and white muscle of Mugil capito fed diets containing different levels of protein and carbohydrate

Four groups of Mugil capito were fed diets with protein and carbohydrate contents changing reciprocally for 121 days. Food consumption changed proportionally to the carbohydrate content of the diet, while final fish growth was similar for all groups of fish. Liver transaminase levels changed significantly with the protein content of the diet. The changes in body transaminase levels were lower in magnitude. The results obtained are compared to those obtained from other fish species and possible reasons for the differences observed are discussed.

Aerobic and anaerobic ammonia production by fish

1. In comparison to other vertebrates, a relatively large part of energy consumption in fish is covered by protein catabolism. 2. In Teleosts, ammonia is the major component of nitrogen excretion, its production rate being directly related to the rate of protein oxidation, while urea is almost exclusively produced from nucleotides by uricolysis. 3. Aerobic ammonia excretion arises from extraction of blood ammonia by the gill. 4. Under aerobic conditions, ammonia originates mainly in the liver by transdeamination and the hydrolysis of imino groups, while an additional quantity is formed in working skeletal muscles by purine nucleotide cycling. 5. During a decline of environmental oxygen, the contribution of the liver to total ammonia production seems to be lowered, while that of skeletal muscles is increased. 6. Anaerobic ammoniogenesis seems to proceed via at least 4 different mechanisms, all occurring in goldfish: deamination of adenylates via adenylate deaminase, deamination of aspartate via the purine nucleotide cycle, breakdown of alanine to ethanol, CO2 and NH3, and oxidation of glutamate via a slowly spinning Krebs-cycle. 7. In goldfish, the combination of these mechanisms is able to sustain an anaerobic rate of ammoniogenesis being equal to that observed under normoxic conditions.

Aspects of purine metabolism in the gill epithelium of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson

1. Enzymes interconnecting the adenylate pool were present in high concentration. 2. AMP and adenosine were easily deaminated by the corresponding enzymes whose high levels were detected. 3. Adenylate was hydrolyzed either by deamination to yield IMP which was further dephosphorylated to inosine or by dephosphorylation to adenosine followed by deamination to inosine. 4. Incubation of gill extract with [-14C]-AMP in the presence and absence of ATP but with adenosine deaminase inhibitors allowed demonstration that ATP controlled the balance between these pathways. 5. Some biochemical properties of 5'-nucleotidase. AMP deaminase and adenosine deaminase were defined. 6. Purine salvage enzymes were also estimated.