1
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Long T, Qian Y, Norman MD, Miljkovic K, Crow C, Head JW, Che X, Tartèse R, Zellner N, Yu X, Xie S, Whitehouse M, Joy KH, Neal CR, Snape JF, Zhou G, Liu S, Yang C, Yang Z, Wang C, Xiao L, Liu D, Nemchin A. Constraining the formation and transport of lunar impact glasses using the ages and chemical compositions of Chang'e-5 glass beads. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabq2542. [PMID: 36170359 PMCID: PMC9519047 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq2542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Impact glasses found in lunar soils provide a possible window into the impact history of the inner solar system. However, their use for precise reconstruction of this history is limited by an incomplete understanding of the physical mechanisms responsible for their origin and distribution and possible relationships to local and regional geology. Here, we report U-Pb isotopic dates and chemical compositions of impact glasses from the Chang'e-5 soil and quantitative models of impact melt formation and ejection that account for the compositions of these glasses. The predominantly local provenance indicated by their compositions, which constrains transport distances to <~150 kilometers, and the age-frequency distribution are consistent with formation mainly in impact craters 1 to 5 kilometers in diameter. Based on geological mapping and impact cratering theory, we tentatively identify specific craters on the basaltic unit sampled by Chang'e-5 that may have produced these glasses and compare their ages with the impact record of the asteroid belt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Long
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Yuqi Qian
- Planetary Science Institute, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Marc D. Norman
- Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Katarina Miljkovic
- School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
| | - Carolyn Crow
- Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - James W. Head
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Xiaochao Che
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Romain Tartèse
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Nicolle Zellner
- Department of Physics, Albion College, Albion, MI 49224, USA
| | - Xuefeng Yu
- Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250013, China
| | - Shiwen Xie
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Martin Whitehouse
- Department of Geosciences, Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katherine H. Joy
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Clive R. Neal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Joshua F. Snape
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Guisheng Zhou
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Shoujie Liu
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Chun Yang
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Zhiqing Yang
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Long Xiao
- Planetary Science Institute, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Dunyi Liu
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
- Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250013, China
| | - Alexander Nemchin
- Beijing SHRIMP Center, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
- School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
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2
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Lagain A, Bouley S, Zanda B, Miljković K, Rajšić A, Baratoux D, Payré V, Doucet LS, Timms NE, Hewins R, Benedix GK, Malarewic V, Servis K, Bland PA. Early crustal processes revealed by the ejection site of the oldest martian meteorite. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3782. [PMID: 35821210 PMCID: PMC9276826 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31444-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation and differentiation of the crust of Mars in the first tens of millions of years after its accretion can only be deciphered from incredibly limited records. The martian breccia NWA 7034 and its paired stones is one of them. This meteorite contains the oldest martian igneous material ever dated: ~4.5 Ga old. However, its source and geological context have so far remained unknown. Here, we show that the meteorite was ejected 5-10 Ma ago from the north-east of the Terra Cimmeria-Sirenum province, in the southern hemisphere of Mars. More specifically, the breccia belongs to the ejecta deposits of the Khujirt crater formed 1.5 Ga ago, and it was ejected as a result of the formation of the Karratha crater 5-10 Ma ago. Our findings demonstrate that the Terra Cimmeria-Sirenum province is a relic of the differentiated primordial martian crust, formed shortly after the accretion of the planet, and that it constitutes a unique record of early crustal processes. This province is an ideal landing site for future missions aiming to unravel the first tens of millions of years of the history of Mars and, by extension, of all terrestrial planets, including the Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lagain
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
| | - S Bouley
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, GEOPS, 91405, Orsay, France.,IMCCE, Observatoire de Paris, 77 avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75005, Paris, France
| | - B Zanda
- IMCCE, Observatoire de Paris, 77 avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75005, Paris, France.,Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Université et CNRS, 75005, Paris, France
| | - K Miljković
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - A Rajšić
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - D Baratoux
- Géosciences Environnement Toulouse, University of Toulouse, CNRS and IRD, Toulouse, 31400, France.,Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - V Payré
- Department of Astronomy and Planetary Science, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - L S Doucet
- Earth Dynamics Research Group, TIGeR, School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - N E Timms
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.,The Institute for Geoscience Research (TIGeR), Curtin University, Perth, 6845, WA, Australia
| | - R Hewins
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Université et CNRS, 75005, Paris, France.,EPS, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - G K Benedix
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.,Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Western Australian Museum, Perth, WA, Australia.,Planetary Sciences Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - V Malarewic
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, GEOPS, 91405, Orsay, France.,Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Université et CNRS, 75005, Paris, France
| | - K Servis
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.,Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, CSIRO, Kensington, WA, Australia
| | - P A Bland
- Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
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3
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Daher H, Arbic BK, Williams JG, Ansong JK, Boggs DH, Müller M, Schindelegger M, Austermann J, Cornuelle BD, Crawford EB, Fringer OB, Lau HCP, Lock SJ, Maloof AC, Menemenlis D, Mitrovica JX, Green JAM, Huber M. Long-Term Earth-Moon Evolution With High-Level Orbit and Ocean Tide Models. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. PLANETS 2021; 126:e2021JE006875. [PMID: 35846556 PMCID: PMC9285098 DOI: 10.1029/2021je006875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Tides and Earth-Moon system evolution are coupled over geological time. Tidal energy dissipation on Earth slows E a r t h ' s rotation rate, increases obliquity, lunar orbit semi-major axis and eccentricity, and decreases lunar inclination. Tidal and core-mantle boundary dissipation within the Moon decrease inclination, eccentricity and semi-major axis. Here we integrate the Earth-Moon system backwards for 4.5 Ga with orbital dynamics and explicit ocean tide models that are "high-level" (i.e., not idealized). To account for uncertain plate tectonic histories, we employ Monte Carlo simulations, with tidal energy dissipation rates (normalized relative to astronomical forcing parameters) randomly selected from ocean tide simulations with modern ocean basin geometry and with 55, 116, and 252 Ma reconstructed basin paleogeometries. The normalized dissipation rates depend upon basin geometry and E a r t h ' s rotation rate. Faster Earth rotation generally yields lower normalized dissipation rates. The Monte Carlo results provide a spread of possible early values for the Earth-Moon system parameters. Of consequence for ocean circulation and climate, absolute (un-normalized) ocean tidal energy dissipation rates on the early Earth may have exceeded t o d a y ' s rate due to a closer Moon. Prior to ∼ 3 Ga , evolution of inclination and eccentricity is dominated by tidal and core-mantle boundary dissipation within the Moon, which yield high lunar orbit inclinations in the early Earth-Moon system. A drawback for our results is that the semi-major axis does not collapse to near-zero values at 4.5 Ga, as indicated by most lunar formation models. Additional processes, missing from our current efforts, are discussed as topics for future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houraa Daher
- Department of Climate and Space Sciences and EngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMIUSA
- Rosenstiel School for Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of MiamiMiamiFLUSA
| | - Brian K. Arbic
- Department of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMIUSA
- Institut des Géosciences de L'Environnement (IGE)GrenobleFrance
- Laboratoire des Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS)ToulouseFrance
| | - James G. Williams
- Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | - Joseph K. Ansong
- Department of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMIUSA
- Department of MathematicsUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
| | - Dale H. Boggs
- Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | | | | | | | - Bruce D. Cornuelle
- Scripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaCAUSA
| | - Eliana B. Crawford
- Department of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMIUSA
- Swift NavigationSan FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of PhysicsKenyon CollegeGambierOHUSA
| | - Oliver B. Fringer
- Department of Civil and Environmental EngineeringStanford UniversityStanfordCAUSA
| | - Harriet C. P. Lau
- Department of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeleyCAUSA
- Department of Earth and Planetary SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridgeMAUSA
| | - Simon J. Lock
- Division of Geological and Planetary SciencesCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | - Adam C. Maloof
- Department of GeosciencesPrinceton UniversityPrincetonNJUSA
| | | | - Jerry X. Mitrovica
- Department of Earth and Planetary SciencesHarvard UniversityCambridgeMAUSA
| | | | - Matthew Huber
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary SciencesPurdue UniversityWest LafayetteINUSA
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4
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Wakita S, Johnson BC, Garrick-Bethell I, Kelley MR, Maxwell RE, Davison TM. Impactor material records the ancient lunar magnetic field in antipodal anomalies. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6543. [PMID: 34764304 PMCID: PMC8586259 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26860-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The Moon presently has no dynamo, but magnetic fields have been detected over numerous portions of its crust. Most of these regions are located antipodal to large basins, leading to the hypothesis that lunar rock ejected during basin-forming impacts accumulated at the basin antipode and recorded the ambient magnetic field. However, a major problem with this hypothesis is that lunar materials have low iron content and cannot become strongly magnetized. Here we simulate oblique impacts of 100-km-diameter impactors at high resolution and show that an ~700 m thick deposit of potentially iron-rich impactor material accumulates at the basin antipode. The material is shock-heated above the Curie temperature and therefore may efficiently record the ambient magnetic field after deposition. These results explain a substantial fraction of the Moon's crustal magnetism, and are consistent with a dynamo field strength of at least several tens of microtesla during the basin-forming epoch.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wakita
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA.
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - B C Johnson
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - I Garrick-Bethell
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 05064, USA
- School of Space Research, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, Gyeonggi, 446-701, Korea
| | - M R Kelley
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 05064, USA
| | - R E Maxwell
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 05064, USA
| | - T M Davison
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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5
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Lagain A, Benedix GK, Servis K, Baratoux D, Doucet LS, Rajšic A, Devillepoix HAR, Bland PA, Towner MC, Sansom EK, Miljković K. The Tharsis mantle source of depleted shergottites revealed by 90 million impact craters. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6352. [PMID: 34732704 PMCID: PMC8566585 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26648-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The only martian rock samples on Earth are meteorites ejected from the surface of Mars by asteroid impacts. The locations and geological contexts of the launch sites are currently unknown. Determining the impact locations is essential to unravel the relations between the evolution of the martian interior and its surface. Here we adapt a Crater Detection Algorithm that compile a database of 90 million impact craters, allowing to determine the potential launch position of these meteorites through the observation of secondary crater fields. We show that Tooting and 09-000015 craters, both located in the Tharsis volcanic province, are the most likely source of the depleted shergottites ejected 1.1 million year ago. This implies that a major thermal anomaly deeply rooted in the mantle under Tharsis was active over most of the geological history of the planet, and has sampled a depleted mantle, that has retained until recently geochemical signatures of Mars' early history.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Lagain
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - G. K. Benedix
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia ,grid.452917.c0000 0000 9848 8286Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Western Australian Museum, Perth, WA Australia ,grid.423138.f0000 0004 0637 3991Planetary Sciences Institute, Tucson, AZ USA
| | - K. Servis
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia ,CSIRO—Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, Kensington, WA Australia
| | - D. Baratoux
- grid.508721.9Géosciences Environnement Toulouse, University of Toulouse, CNRS & IRD, 14, Avenue Edouard Belin, 31 400 Toulouse, France ,grid.410694.e0000 0001 2176 6353University Félix Houphouët-Boigny, UFR Sciences de la Terre et des Ressources Minières, Abidjan-Cocody, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - L. S. Doucet
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Earth Dynamics Research Group, TIGeR, School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - A. Rajšic
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - H. A. R. Devillepoix
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - P. A. Bland
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - M. C. Towner
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - E. K. Sansom
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
| | - K. Miljković
- grid.1032.00000 0004 0375 4078Space Science and Technology Centre, School of Earth and Planetary Science, Curtin University, Perth, WA Australia
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6
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Timpe ML, Han Veiga M, Knabenhans M, Stadel J, Marelli S. Machine learning applied to simulations of collisions between rotating, differentiated planets. COMPUTATIONAL ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY 2020; 7:2. [PMID: 33282631 PMCID: PMC7716936 DOI: 10.1186/s40668-020-00034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the late stages of terrestrial planet formation, pairwise collisions between planetary-sized bodies act as the fundamental agent of planet growth. These collisions can lead to either growth or disruption of the bodies involved and are largely responsible for shaping the final characteristics of the planets. Despite their critical role in planet formation, an accurate treatment of collisions has yet to be realized. While semi-analytic methods have been proposed, they remain limited to a narrow set of post-impact properties and have only achieved relatively low accuracies. However, the rise of machine learning and access to increased computing power have enabled novel data-driven approaches. In this work, we show that data-driven emulation techniques are capable of classifying and predicting the outcome of collisions with high accuracy and are generalizable to any quantifiable post-impact quantity. In particular, we focus on the dataset requirements, training pipeline, and classification and regression performance for four distinct data-driven techniques from machine learning (ensemble methods and neural networks) and uncertainty quantification (Gaussian processes and polynomial chaos expansion). We compare these methods to existing analytic and semi-analytic methods. Such data-driven emulators are poised to replace the methods currently used in N-body simulations, while avoiding the cost of direct simulation. This work is based on a new set of 14,856 SPH simulations of pairwise collisions between rotating, differentiated bodies at all possible mutual orientations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miles L Timpe
- Institute for Computational Science, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Maria Han Veiga
- Institute for Computational Science, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute for Mathematics, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mischa Knabenhans
- Institute for Computational Science, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Joachim Stadel
- Institute for Computational Science, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Marelli
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH Zürich, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 5, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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7
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Collins GS, Patel N, Davison TM, Rae ASP, Morgan JV, Gulick SPS. A steeply-inclined trajectory for the Chicxulub impact. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1480. [PMID: 32457325 PMCID: PMC7251121 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15269-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The environmental severity of large impacts on Earth is influenced by their impact trajectory. Impact direction and angle to the target plane affect the volume and depth of origin of vaporized target, as well as the trajectories of ejected material. The asteroid impact that formed the 66 Ma Chicxulub crater had a profound and catastrophic effect on Earth's environment, but the impact trajectory is debated. Here we show that impact angle and direction can be diagnosed by asymmetries in the subsurface structure of the Chicxulub crater. Comparison of 3D numerical simulations of Chicxulub-scale impacts with geophysical observations suggests that the Chicxulub crater was formed by a steeply-inclined (45-60° to horizontal) impact from the northeast; several lines of evidence rule out a low angle (<30°) impact. A steeply-inclined impact produces a nearly symmetric distribution of ejected rock and releases more climate-changing gases per impactor mass than either a very shallow or near-vertical impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Collins
- Department Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - N Patel
- Department Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - T M Davison
- Department Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - A S P Rae
- Department Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.,Institute of Geology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, 79104, Germany
| | - J V Morgan
- Department Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - S P S Gulick
- Institute for Geophysics and Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78758, USA
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8
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Zhu MH, Artemieva N, Morbidelli A, Yin QZ, Becker H, Wünnemann K. Reconstructing the late-accretion history of the Moon. Nature 2019; 571:226-229. [DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1359-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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9
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Morgan JV, Gulick SPS, Bralower T, Chenot E, Christeson G, Claeys P, Cockell C, Collins GS, Coolen MJL, Ferrière L, Gebhardt C, Goto K, Jones H, Kring DA, Le Ber E, Lofi J, Long X, Lowery C, Mellett C, Ocampo-Torres R, Osinski GR, Perez-Cruz L, Pickersgill A, Poelchau M, Rae A, Rasmussen C, Rebolledo-Vieyra M, Riller U, Sato H, Schmitt DR, Smit J, Tikoo S, Tomioka N, Urrutia-Fucugauchi J, Whalen M, Wittmann A, Yamaguchi KE, Zylberman W. The formation of peak rings in large impact craters. Science 2017; 354:878-882. [PMID: 27856906 DOI: 10.1126/science.aah6561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Large impacts provide a mechanism for resurfacing planets through mixing near-surface rocks with deeper material. Central peaks are formed from the dynamic uplift of rocks during crater formation. As crater size increases, central peaks transition to peak rings. Without samples, debate surrounds the mechanics of peak-ring formation and their depth of origin. Chicxulub is the only known impact structure on Earth with an unequivocal peak ring, but it is buried and only accessible through drilling. Expedition 364 sampled the Chicxulub peak ring, which we found was formed from uplifted, fractured, shocked, felsic basement rocks. The peak-ring rocks are cross-cut by dikes and shear zones and have an unusually low density and seismic velocity. Large impacts therefore generate vertical fluxes and increase porosity in planetary crust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna V Morgan
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Sean P S Gulick
- Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78758-4445, USA
| | - Timothy Bralower
- Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Elise Chenot
- Biogéosciences Laboratory, UMR 6282 CNRS, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon 21000, France
| | - Gail Christeson
- Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78758-4445, USA
| | - Philippe Claeys
- Analytical, Environmental and Geo-Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2,Brussels 1050, Belgium
| | - Charles Cockell
- Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
| | - Gareth S Collins
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Marco J L Coolen
- Department of Chemistry, WA-Organic and Isotope Geochemistry Centre (WA-OIGC), Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | | | - Catalina Gebhardt
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre of Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, 27568, Germany
| | - Kazuhisa Goto
- Tohoku University, International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Aoba 468-1 E303, Sendai 980-0845, Japan
| | - Heather Jones
- Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - David A Kring
- Lunar and Planetary Institute, 3600 Bay Area Boulevard, Houston, TX 77058, USA
| | - Erwan Le Ber
- Department of Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Johanna Lofi
- Géosciences Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier Cedex05, France
| | - Xiao Long
- China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), School of Earth Sciences, Planetary Science Institute, 388 Lumo Rd. Hongshan Dist., China
| | - Christopher Lowery
- Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78758-4445, USA
| | - Claire Mellett
- British Geological Survey, The Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh, EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Rubén Ocampo-Torres
- Groupe de Physico-Chimie de l'Atmosphère, L'Institut de Chimie et Procédés pour l'Énergie, l'Environnement et la Santé (ICPEES), UMR 7515 Université de Strasbourg-CNRS 1 rue Blessig, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Gordon R Osinski
- Centre for Planetary Science and Exploration and Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Ligia Perez-Cruz
- Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán Ciudad de México, C. P. 04510, México
| | - Annemarie Pickersgill
- School of Geographical and Earth Sciences, University of Glasgow, Gregory, Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Michael Poelchau
- University of Freiburg, Geology, Albertstraße 23b, Freiburg, 79104, Germany
| | - Auriol Rae
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Cornelia Rasmussen
- University of Utah, Department of Geology and Geophysics, 115 S 1460 E (FASB), Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Mario Rebolledo-Vieyra
- Unidad de Ciencias del Agua, Centro de Investigación, Científica de Yucatán, A.C., Cancún, Quintana Roo, C.P. 77500, México
| | - Ulrich Riller
- Institut für Geologie, Universität Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg, 20146, Germany
| | - Honami Sato
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 2-15, Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka-city, Kanagawa, 237-0061, Japan
| | - Douglas R Schmitt
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Jan Smit
- Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences (FALW), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, de Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1018HV, Netherlands
| | - Sonia Tikoo
- Rutgers University New Brunswick, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Piscataway Township, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Naotaka Tomioka
- Kochi Institute for Core Sample Research, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 200 Monobe Otsu, Nankoku, Kochi, 783-8502, Japan
| | - Jaime Urrutia-Fucugauchi
- Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán Ciudad de México, C. P. 04510, México
| | - Michael Whalen
- Department of Geosciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 900 Yukon Drive, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Axel Wittmann
- Arizona State University, LeRoy Eyring Center for Solid State Science, Physical Sciences, Tempe, AZ 85287-1704, USA
| | - Kosei E Yamaguchi
- Department of Chemistry, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan.,NASA Astrobiology Institute, USA
| | - William Zylberman
- Centre for Planetary Science and Exploration and Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada.,Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut pour la Recherche et le Développement, Coll France, CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France
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10
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Johnson BC, Blair DM, Collins GS, Melosh HJ, Freed AM, Taylor GJ, Head JW, Wieczorek MA, Andrews-Hanna JC, Nimmo F, Keane JT, Miljković K, Soderblom JM, Zuber MT. Formation of the Orientale lunar multiring basin. Science 2016; 354:441-444. [PMID: 27789836 DOI: 10.1126/science.aag0518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Multiring basins, large impact craters characterized by multiple concentric topographic rings, dominate the stratigraphy, tectonics, and crustal structure of the Moon. Using a hydrocode, we simulated the formation of the Orientale multiring basin, producing a subsurface structure consistent with high-resolution gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft. The simulated impact produced a transient crater, ~390 kilometers in diameter, that was not maintained because of subsequent gravitational collapse. Our simulations indicate that the flow of warm weak material at depth was crucial to the formation of the basin's outer rings, which are large normal faults that formed at different times during the collapse stage. The key parameters controlling ring location and spacing are impactor diameter and lunar thermal gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Johnson
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - David M Blair
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, Route 40, Westford, MA 01886, USA
| | - Gareth S Collins
- Impacts and Astromaterials Research Centre, Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - H Jay Melosh
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Andrew M Freed
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - G Jeffrey Taylor
- Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawai'i, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - James W Head
- Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Mark A Wieczorek
- Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, Paris Cedex 13 75205, France
| | | | - Francis Nimmo
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - James T Keane
- Department of Planetary Science, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Katarina Miljković
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jason M Soderblom
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Maria T Zuber
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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11
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Peak-ring structure and kinematics from a multi-disciplinary study of the Schrödinger impact basin. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13161. [PMID: 27762265 PMCID: PMC5080443 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Schrödinger basin on the lunar farside is ∼320 km in diameter and the best-preserved peak-ring basin of its size in the Earth–Moon system. Here we present spectral and photogeologic analyses of data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper instrument on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) on the LRO spacecraft, which indicates the peak ring is composed of anorthositic, noritic and troctolitic lithologies that were juxtaposed by several cross-cutting faults during peak-ring formation. Hydrocode simulations indicate the lithologies were uplifted from depths up to 30 km, representing the crust of the lunar farside. Through combining geological and remote-sensing observations with numerical modelling, we show that a Displaced Structural Uplift model is best for peak rings, including that in the K–T Chicxulub impact crater on Earth. These results may help guide sample selection in lunar sample return missions that are being studied for the multi-agency International Space Exploration Coordination Group. Impact basins on the Moon are considered as the best landing sites for the recovery of information about the lunar interior. To inform future lunar missions, Kring et al. combine remote sensing and numerical modelling to generate a geological map of the Schrodinger Impact Basin peak ring.
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12
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Li Y, Dove A, Curtis JS, Colwell JE. 3D DEM simulations and experiments exploring low-velocity projectile impacts into a granular bed. POWDER TECHNOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2015.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Johnson BC, Minton DA, Melosh HJ, Zuber MT. Impact jetting as the origin of chondrules. Nature 2015; 517:339-41. [PMID: 25592538 DOI: 10.1038/nature14105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Chondrules are the millimetre-scale, previously molten, spherules found in most meteorites. Before chondrules formed, large differentiating planetesimals had already accreted. Volatile-rich olivine reveals that chondrules formed in extremely solid-rich environments, more like impact plumes than the solar nebula. The unique chondrules in CB chondrites probably formed in a vapour-melt plume produced by a hypervelocity impact with an impact velocity greater than 10 kilometres per second. An acceptable formation model for the overwhelming majority of chondrules, however, has not been established. Here we report that impacts can produce enough chondrules during the first five million years of planetary accretion to explain their observed abundance. Building on a previous study of impact jetting, we simulate protoplanetary impacts, finding that material is melted and ejected at high speed when the impact velocity exceeds 2.5 kilometres per second. Using a Monte Carlo accretion code, we estimate the location, timing, sizes, and velocities of chondrule-forming impacts. Ejecta size estimates indicate that jetted melt will form millimetre-scale droplets. Our radiative transfer models show that these droplets experience the expected cooling rates of ten to a thousand kelvin per hour. An impact origin for chondrules implies that meteorites are a byproduct of planet formation rather than leftover building material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Johnson
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - David A Minton
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
| | - H J Melosh
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
| | - Maria T Zuber
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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14
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Pressure-temperature evolution of primordial solar system solids during impact-induced compaction. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5451. [PMID: 25465283 PMCID: PMC4268713 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior to becoming chondritic meteorites, primordial solids were a poorly consolidated mix of mm-scale igneous inclusions (chondrules) and high-porosity sub-μm dust (matrix). We used high-resolution numerical simulations to track the effect of impact-induced compaction on these materials. Here we show that impact velocities as low as 1.5 km s(-1) were capable of heating the matrix to >1,000 K, with pressure-temperature varying by >10 GPa and >1,000 K over ~100 μm. Chondrules were unaffected, acting as heat-sinks: matrix temperature excursions were brief. As impact-induced compaction was a primary and ubiquitous process, our new understanding of its effects requires that key aspects of the chondrite record be re-evaluated: palaeomagnetism, petrography and variability in shock level across meteorite groups. Our data suggest a lithification mechanism for meteorites, and provide a 'speed limit' constraint on major compressive impacts that is inconsistent with recent models of solar system orbital architecture that require an early, rapid phase of main-belt collisional evolution.
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15
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Marchi S, Bottke WF, Elkins-Tanton LT, Bierhaus M, Wuennemann K, Morbidelli A, Kring DA. Widespread mixing and burial of Earth's Hadean crust by asteroid impacts. Nature 2014; 511:578-82. [PMID: 25079556 DOI: 10.1038/nature13539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The history of the Hadean Earth (∼4.0-4.5 billion years ago) is poorly understood because few known rocks are older than ∼3.8 billion years old. The main constraints from this era come from ancient submillimetre zircon grains. Some of these zircons date back to ∼4.4 billion years ago when the Moon, and presumably the Earth, was being pummelled by an enormous flux of extraterrestrial bodies. The magnitude and exact timing of these early terrestrial impacts, and their effects on crustal growth and evolution, are unknown. Here we provide a new bombardment model of the Hadean Earth that has been calibrated using existing lunar and terrestrial data. We find that the surface of the Hadean Earth was widely reprocessed by impacts through mixing and burial by impact-generated melt. This model may explain the age distribution of Hadean zircons and the absence of early terrestrial rocks. Existing oceans would have repeatedly boiled away into steam atmospheres as a result of large collisions as late as about 4 billion years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Marchi
- Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado 80302, USA
| | - W F Bottke
- Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado 80302, USA
| | - L T Elkins-Tanton
- 1] Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC 20015, USA [2] School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, USA
| | - M Bierhaus
- Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin 10115, Germany
| | | | - A Morbidelli
- Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, Nice 06304, France
| | - D A Kring
- Universities Space Research Association, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas 77058, USA
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16
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Salmon J, Canup RM. Accretion of the Moon from non-canonical discs. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2014; 372:20130256. [PMID: 25114307 PMCID: PMC4128270 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2013.0256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Impacts that leave the Earth-Moon system with a large excess in angular momentum have recently been advocated as a means of generating a protolunar disc with a composition that is nearly identical to that of the Earth's mantle. We here investigate the accretion of the Moon from discs generated by such 'non-canonical' impacts, which are typically more compact than discs produced by canonical impacts and have a higher fraction of their mass initially located inside the Roche limit. Our model predicts a similar overall accretional history for both canonical and non-canonical discs, with the Moon forming in three consecutive steps over hundreds of years. However, we find that, to yield a lunar-mass Moon, the more compact non-canonical discs must initially be more massive than implied by prior estimates, and only a few of the discs produced by impact simulations to date appear to meet this condition. Non-canonical impacts require that capture of the Moon into the evection resonance with the Sun reduced the Earth-Moon angular momentum by a factor of 2 or more. We find that the Moon's semi-major axis at the end of its accretion is approximately 7R⊕, which is comparable to the location of the evection resonance for a post-impact Earth with a 2.5 h rotation period in the absence of a disc. Thus, the dynamics of the Moon's assembly may directly affect its ability to be captured into the resonance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Salmon
- Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 300, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | - R M Canup
- Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 300, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
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17
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Canup RM. Lunar-forming impacts: processes and alternatives. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2014; 372:20130175. [PMID: 25114302 PMCID: PMC4128262 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2013.0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The formation of a protolunar disc by a giant impact with the early Earth is discussed, focusing on two classes of impacts: (i) canonical impacts, in which a Mars-sized impactor produces a planet-disc system whose angular momentum is comparable to that in the current Earth and Moon, and (ii) high-angular-momentum impacts, which produce a system whose angular momentum is approximately a factor of 2 larger than that in the current Earth and Moon. In (i), the disc originates primarily from impactor-derived material and thus is expected to have an initial composition distinct from that of the Earth's mantle. In (ii), a hotter, more compact initial disc is produced with a silicate composition that can be nearly identical to that of the silicate Earth. Both scenarios require subsequent processes for consistency with the current Earth and Moon: disc-planet compositional equilibration in the case of (i), or large-scale angular momentum loss during capture of the newly formed Moon into the evection resonance with the Sun in the case of (ii).
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Canup
- Southwest Research Institute, Planetary Science Directorate, 1050 Walnut St., Suite 300, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
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18
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Melosh HJ, Freed AM, Johnson BC, Blair DM, Andrews-Hanna JC, Neumann GA, Phillips RJ, Smith DE, Solomon SC, Wieczorek MA, Zuber MT. The origin of lunar mascon basins. Science 2013; 340:1552-5. [PMID: 23722426 DOI: 10.1126/science.1235768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
High-resolution gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory spacecraft have clarified the origin of lunar mass concentrations (mascons). Free-air gravity anomalies over lunar impact basins display bull's-eye patterns consisting of a central positive (mascon) anomaly, a surrounding negative collar, and a positive outer annulus. We show that this pattern results from impact basin excavation and collapse followed by isostatic adjustment and cooling and contraction of a voluminous melt pool. We used a hydrocode to simulate the impact and a self-consistent finite-element model to simulate the subsequent viscoelastic relaxation and cooling. The primary parameters controlling the modeled gravity signatures of mascon basins are the impactor energy, the lunar thermal gradient at the time of impact, the crustal thickness, and the extent of volcanic fill.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Melosh
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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19
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Abstract
In the giant impact theory, the Moon formed from debris ejected into an Earth-orbiting disk by the collision of a large planet with the early Earth. Prior impact simulations predict that much of the disk material originates from the colliding planet. However, Earth and the Moon have essentially identical oxygen isotope compositions. This has been a challenge for the impact theory, because the impactor's composition would have likely differed from that of Earth. We simulated impacts involving larger impactors than previously considered. We show that these can produce a disk with the same composition as the planet's mantle, consistent with Earth-Moon compositional similarities. Such impacts require subsequent removal of angular momentum from the Earth-Moon system through a resonance with the Sun as recently proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin M Canup
- Planetary Science Directorate, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 300, Boulder, CO 80302, USA.
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20
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Solomatov VS, Stevenson DJ. Suspension in convective layers and style of differentiation of a terrestrial magma ocean. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/92je02948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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21
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Drake MJ, McFarlane EA, Gasparik T, Rubie DC. MG-perovskite/silicate melt and majorite garnet/silicate melt partition coefficients in the SYSTEM CaO - MgO - SiO2at high temperatures and pressures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/92je02290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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23
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Agee CB, Li J, Shannon MC, Circone S. Pressure-temperature phase diagram for the Allende meteorite. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/95jb00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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24
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Taylor SR. Accretion in the inner nebula: The relationship between terrestrial planetary compositions and meteorites*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1945-5100.1991.tb00726.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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25
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Kurosawa K, Kadono T, Sugita S, Shigemori K, Sakaiya T, Hironaka Y, Ozaki N, Shiroshita A, Cho Y, Tachibana S, Vinci T, Ohno S, Kodama R, Matsui T. Shock-induced silicate vaporization: The role of electrons. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011je004031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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26
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Wieczorek MA, Weiss BP, Stewart ST. An Impactor Origin for Lunar Magnetic Anomalies. Science 2012; 335:1212-5. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1214773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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27
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Evidence of denser MgSiO3 glass above 133 gigapascal (GPa) and implications for remnants of ultradense silicate melt from a deep magma ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:17286-9. [PMID: 21969547 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1109748108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultralow velocity zones are the largest seismic anomalies in the mantle, with 10-30% seismic velocity reduction observed in thin layers less than 20-40 km thick, just above the Earth's core-mantle boundary (CMB). The presence of silicate melts, possibly a remnant of a deep magma ocean in the early Earth, have been proposed to explain ultralow velocity zones. It is, however, still an open question as to whether such silicate melts are gravitationally stable at the pressure conditions above the CMB. Fe enrichment is usually invoked to explain why melts would remain at the CMB, but this has not been substantiated experimentally. Here we report in situ high-pressure acoustic velocity measurements that suggest a new transformation to a denser structure of MgSiO(3) glass at pressures close to those of the CMB. The result suggests that MgSiO(3) melt is likely to become denser than crystalline MgSiO(3) above the CMB. The presence of negatively buoyant and gravitationally stable silicate melts at the bottom of the mantle, would provide a mechanism for observed ultralow seismic velocities above the CMB without enrichment of Fe in the melt. An ultradense melt phase and its geochemical inventory would be isolated from overlying convective flow over geologic time.
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28
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Abstract
Earth is the one known example of an inhabited planet and to current knowledge the likeliest site of the one known origin of life. Here we discuss the origin of Earth's atmosphere and ocean and some of the environmental conditions of the early Earth as they may relate to the origin of life. A key punctuating event in the narrative is the Moon-forming impact, partly because it made Earth for a short time absolutely uninhabitable, and partly because it sets the boundary conditions for Earth's subsequent evolution. If life began on Earth, as opposed to having migrated here, it would have done so after the Moon-forming impact. What took place before the Moon formed determined the bulk properties of the Earth and probably determined the overall compositions and sizes of its atmospheres and oceans. What took place afterward animated these materials. One interesting consequence of the Moon-forming impact is that the mantle is devolatized, so that the volatiles subsequently fell out in a kind of condensation sequence. This ensures that the volatiles were concentrated toward the surface so that, for example, the oceans were likely salty from the start. We also point out that an atmosphere generated by impact degassing would tend to have a composition reflective of the impacting bodies (rather than the mantle), and these are almost without exception strongly reducing and volatile-rich. A consequence is that, although CO- or methane-rich atmospheres are not necessarily stable as steady states, they are quite likely to have existed as long-lived transients, many times. With CO comes abundant chemical energy in a metastable package, and with methane comes hydrogen cyanide and ammonia as important albeit less abundant gases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Zahnle
- Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center, MS 245-3, Moffett Field, California 94035, USA.
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29
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Canup RM. Accretion of the Earth. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2008; 366:4061-4075. [PMID: 18826928 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2008.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The origin of the Earth and its Moon has been the focus of an enormous body of research. In this paper I review some of the current models of terrestrial planet accretion, and discuss assumptions common to most works that may require re-examination. Density-wave interactions between growing planets and the gas nebula may help to explain the current near-circular orbits of the Earth and Venus, and may result in large-scale radial migration of proto-planetary embryos. Migration would weaken the link between the present locations of the planets and the original provenance of the material that formed them. Fragmentation can potentially lead to faster accretion and could also damp final planet orbital eccentricities. The Moon-forming impact is believed to be the final major event in the Earth's accretion. Successful simulations of lunar-forming impacts involve a differentiated impactor containing between 0.1 and 0.2 Earth masses, an impact angle near 45 degrees and an impact speed within 10 per cent of the Earth's escape velocity. All successful impacts-with or without pre-impact rotation-imply that the Moon formed primarily from material originating from the impactor rather than from the proto-Earth. This must ultimately be reconciled with compositional similarities between the Earth and the Moon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin M Canup
- Southwest Research Institute, Planetary Science Directorate, Boulder, CO 80302, USA.
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30
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A light carbon reservoir recorded in zircon-hosted diamond from the Jack Hills. Nature 2008; 454:92-5. [PMID: 18596808 DOI: 10.1038/nature07102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2007] [Accepted: 05/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The recent discovery of diamond-graphite inclusions in the Earth's oldest zircon grains (formed up to 4,252 Myr ago) from the Jack Hills metasediments in Western Australia provides a unique opportunity to investigate Earth's earliest known carbon reservoir. Here we report ion microprobe analyses of the carbon isotope composition of these diamond-graphite inclusions. The observed delta(13)C(PDB) values (expressed using the PeeDee Belemnite standard) range between -5 per mil and -58 per mil with a median of -31 per mil. This extends beyond typical mantle values of around -6 per mil to values observed in metamorphic and some eclogitic diamonds that are interpreted to reflect deep subduction of low-delta(13)C(PDB) biogenic surface carbon. Low delta(13)C(PDB) values may also be produced by inorganic chemical reactions, and therefore are not unambiguous evidence for life on Earth as early as 4,250 Myr ago. Regardless, our results suggest that a low-delta(13)C(PDB) reservoir may have existed on the early Earth.
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31
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Abstract
The formation of the Earth as a planet was a large stochastic process in which the rapid assembly of asteroidal-to-Mars-sized bodies was followed by a more extended period of growth through collisions of these objects, facilitated by the gravitational perturbations associated with Jupiter. The Earth's inventory of water and organic molecules may have come from diverse sources, not more than 10% roughly from comets, the rest from asteroidal precursors to chondritic bodies and possibly objects near Earth's orbit for which no representative class of meteorites exists today in laboratory collections. The final assembly of the Earth included a catastrophic impact with a Mars-sized body, ejecting mantle and crustal material to form the Moon, and also devolatilizing part of the Earth. A magma ocean and steam atmosphere (possibly with silica vapour) existed briefly in this period, but terrestrial surface waters were below the critical point within 100 million years after Earth's formation, and liquid water existed continuously on the surface within a few hundred million years. Organic material delivered by comets and asteroids would have survived, in part, this violent early period, but frequent impacts of remaining debris probably prevented the continuous habitability of the Earth for one to several hundred million years. Planetary analogues to or records of this early time when life began include Io (heat flow), Titan (organic chemistry) and Venus (remnant early granites).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan I Lunine
- Istituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario, INAF ARTOV, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00133 Rome, Italy.
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Münker C, Pfänder JA, Weyer S, Büchl A, Kleine T, Mezger K. Evolution of planetary cores and the Earth-Moon system from Nb/Ta systematics. Science 2003; 301:84-7. [PMID: 12843390 DOI: 10.1126/science.1084662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
It has been assumed that Nb and Ta are not fractionated during differentiation processes on terrestrial planets and that both elements are lithophile. High-precision measurements of Nb/Ta and Zr/Hf reveal that Nb is moderately siderophile at high pressures. Nb/Ta values in the bulk silicate Earth (14.0 +/- 0.3) and the Moon (17.0 +/- 0.8) are below the chondritic ratio of 19.9 +/- 0.6, in contrast to Mars and asteroids. The lunar Nb/Ta constrains the mass fraction of impactor material in the Moon to less than 65%. Moreover, the Moon-forming impact can be linked in time with the final core-mantle equilibration on Earth 4.533 billion years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Münker
- Institut für Mineralogie, Corrensstrasse 24, Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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Canup RM, Asphaug E. Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation. Nature 2001; 412:708-12. [PMID: 11507633 DOI: 10.1038/35089010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The Moon is generally believed to have formed from debris ejected by a large off-centre collision with the early Earth. The impact orientation and size are constrained by the angular momentum contained in both the Earth's spin and the Moon's orbit, a quantity that has been nearly conserved over the past 4.5 billion years. Simulations of potential moon-forming impacts now achieve resolutions sufficient to study the production of bound debris. However, identifying impacts capable of yielding the Earth-Moon system has proved difficult. Previous works found that forming the Moon with an appropriate impact angular momentum required the impact to occur when the Earth was only about half formed, a more restrictive and problematic model than that originally envisaged. Here we report a class of impacts that yield an iron-poor Moon, as well as the current masses and angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system. This class of impacts involves a smaller-and thus more likely-object than previously considered viable, and suggests that the Moon formed near the very end of Earth's accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Canup
- Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, 1050 Walnut Street, Suite 426, Boulder, Colorado 80302, USA.
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Pierazzo E, Melosh HJ. Understanding oblique impacts from experiments, observations, and modeling. ANNUAL REVIEW OF EARTH AND PLANETARY SCIENCES 2000; 28:141-167. [PMID: 11583040 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Natural impacts in which the projectile strikes the target vertically are virtually nonexistent. Nevertheless, our inherent drive to simplify nature often causes us to suppose most impacts are nearly vertical. Recent theoretical, observational, and experimental work is improving this situation, but even with the current wealth of studies on impact cratering, the effect of impact angle on the final crater is not well understood. Although craters' rims may appear circular down to low impact angles, the distribution of ejecta around the crater is more sensitive to the angle of impact and currently serves as the best guide to obliquity of impacts. Experimental studies established that crater dimensions depend only on the vertical component of the impact velocity. The shock wave generated by the impact weakens with decreasing impact angle. As a result, melting and vaporization depend on impact angle; however, these processes do not seem to depend on the vertical component of the velocity alone. Finally, obliquity influences the fate of the projectile: in particular, the amount and velocity of ricochet are a strong function of impact angle.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Pierazzo
- Lunar and Planetary Lab., University of Arizona, Tucson, 84721, USA.
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Pierazzo E, Kring DA, Melosh HJ. Hydrocode simulation of the Chicxulub impact event and the production of climatically active gases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1029/98je02496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hood LL, Huang Z. Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1029/91jb00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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A new look at differentiation of the Earth from melting experiments on the Allende meteorite. Nature 1990. [DOI: 10.1038/346834a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
It has long been speculated that Earth accreted prebiotic organic molecules important for the origins of life from impacts of carbonaceous asteroids and comets during the period of heavy bombardment 4.5 x 10(9) to 3.8 x 10(9) years ago. A comprehensive treatment of comet-asteroid interaction with the atmosphere, surface impact, and resulting organic pyrolysis demonstrates that organics will not survive impacts at velocities greater than about 10 kilometers per second and that even comets and asteroids as small as 100 meters in radius cannot be aerobraked to below this velocity in 1-bar atmospheres. However, for plausible dense (10-bar carbon dioxide) early atmospheres, we find that 4.5 x 10(9) years ago Earth was accreting intact cometary organics at a rate of at least approximately 10(6) to 10(7) kilograms per year, a flux that thereafter declined with a half-life of approximately 10(8) years. These results may be put in context by comparison with terrestrial oceanic and total biomasses, approximately 3 x 10(12) kilograms and approximately 6 x 10(14) kilograms, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Chyba
- Laboratory for Planetary Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Abstract
Of the planets, Venus and Earth are by far the most similar in primary properties, yet they differ markedly in secondary properties. A great impact into Earth is believed to have created its moon and removed its atmosphere; the lack of such an impact into Venus apparently led to a greatly differing atmospheric evolution. The lack of an ocean on Venus prevents the recycling of volatiles and inhibits subduction, so that its crust is probably more voluminous than Earth's, although distorted and quite variable in thickness. Venus's upper mantle appears to be depleted in both volatiles and energy sources because, in addition to the lack of volatile recycling, melts of mantle rocks are more dense than their solid matrix at pressures above 8 gigapascals and hence sink if they occur at depths below 250 kilometers. Appreciable energy sources persist at great depths to sustain the few great mountain complexes. The greatest current problem is reconciling the likelihood of a voluminous crust with indications of considerable strength at shallow depths of 20 to 100 kilometers.
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Abstract
In previous papers in this series the smoothed particle hydrodynamics method (SPH) has been used to explore the conditions in which a major planetary collision may have been responsible for the formation of the Moon. In Paper II (W. Benz, W.L. Slattery, and A.G.W. Cameron 1987, Icarus 71, 30-45) it was found that the optimum conditions were obtained when the mass ratio of the impactor to the protoearth was 0.136. In the present paper we investigate the importance of the equation of state by running this optimum case several times and varying the equation of state and other related parameters. The two equations of state compared are the Tillotson (used in the previous papers) and the CHART D/CSQ ANEOS. Because of differences in these equations of state, including the fact that different types of rocks were used in association with each, it was not possible to prepare initial planetary models that were comparable in every respect, so several different simulations were necessary in which different planetary parameters were matched between the equations of state. We also used a new version of the SPH code. The results reaffirmed the previous principal conclusions: the collisions produced a disk of rocky material in orbit, with most of the material derived from the impacting object. These results indicate that the equation of state is not a critical factor in determining the amount of material thrown into orbit. This confirms the conclusions of Paper II that gravitational torques, and not pressure gradients, inject the orbiting mass. However, the way this mass is distributed in orbit is affected by the equation of state and the choice of rock material, the Tillotson equation for granite giving slightly larger mean orbital radius for the particles left in orbit than the ANEOS dunite for the same impact parameter. We also find, compared to Paper II, that in all subsequent cases the new SPH code leads to a slightly less extended prelunar accretion disk. We think this is due to the new shape adopted for the kernel. A few additional calculations were made to test the effects of increasing the impact parameter on the calculations, other parameters remaining unchanged. The motivation for this was that solar tides will have reduced the Earth-Moon angular momentum somewhat over the course of time. An increment of 6% in the angular momentum of the collision increases the amount of iron-free material in orbit and its mean orbital radius, but more than that leaves increasing amounts of iron in orbit (the iron has a small mean orbital radius). The debris from the destroyed impacting object tends to form a straight rotating bar which is very effective in transferring angular momentum. If the material near the end of the bar extends well beyond the Roche lobe, it may become unstable against gravitational clumping.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Benz
- Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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