Increased corpus callosum size in musicians

Increased functional connectivity of motor regions and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in musicians with focal hand dystonia

BACKGROUND

Musician's dystonia is the most common form of focal task-specific dystonia and is suggested to be the result of dysfunctional communication among sensory-motor networks. Thus far, few functional connectivity studies have investigated musician's dystonia specifically, leaving its exact pathophysiological mechanisms unclear. The goal of this study was to verify connectivity findings from other task-specific dystonias on a large sample of musician's hand dystonia patients and to analyze associations with possible adverse childhood experiences, a suggested risk factor for dystonia.

METHODS

Forty professional musicians suffering from musician's hand dystonia and a matched control group of healthy musicians underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and answered the childhood trauma questionnaire. Using a seed-to-whole brain approach, functional connectivity alterations between motor cortices, the prefrontal cortex, the basal ganglia and the thalamus were analyzed.

RESULTS

Musician's dystonia patients showed increased functional connectivity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex with the putamen and the pallidum, especially in right-side affected patients. Patients further displayed increased connectivity of the left thalamus and the right lateral premotor cortex. No associations between functional connectivity, duration of disorder and childhood adversity were observed.

CONCLUSION

The findings are consistent with previous research, highlighting the pathophysiological importance of the basal ganglia. Altered resting-state functional connectivity may reflect underlying neuroplastic changes in musicians with dystonia that lead to an altered flow of information, disrupting movement inhibition. Involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal and premotor cortices further suggests that motor disturbances occur in the early planning phase of a movement. The findings indicate that a holistic re-training approach with and without the instrument could be beneficial for regaining motor control.

Functional implications of age-related atrophy of the corpus callosum

The corpus callosum plays a critical role in inter-hemispheric communication by coordinating the transfer of sensory, motor, cognitive, and emotional information between the two hemispheres. However, as part of the normal aging process, the corpus callosum undergoes significant structural changes, including reductions in both its size and microstructural integrity. These age-related alterations can profoundly impact the brain's ability to coordinate functions across hemispheres, leading to a decline in various aspects of sensory processing, motor coordination, cognitive functioning, and emotional regulation. This review aims to synthesize current research on age-related changes in the corpus callosum, examining the regional differences in atrophy, its underlying causes, and its functional implications. By exploring these aspects, we seek to emphasize the clinical significance of corpus callosum degeneration and its impact on the quality of life in older adults, as well as the potential for early detection and targeted interventions to preserve brain health during aging. Finally, the review calls for further research into the mechanisms underlying corpus callosum atrophy and its broader implications for aging.

Stress in Musicians with and Without Focal Dystonia Is Not Reflected in Limbic Circuit Activation

BACKGROUND

Musicians' dystonia (MD) is a movement disorder with several established risk factors, but the exact pathophysiology remains unknown. Recent research suggests dysfunction in sensory-motor, basal ganglia, cerebellar, and limbic loops as potential causes. Adverse childhood experiences are also considered risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate whether MD patients have experienced more childhood trauma, leading to increased stress reactivity and neural vulnerability to movement disorders.

METHODS

Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and the Montreal Imaging Stress Task, 40 MD patients were compared with 39 healthy musicians (HMs). Whole-brain analysis and regions of interest analysis were performed. Parameter estimates and subjective stress levels were compared between groups and correlated with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire.

RESULTS

MD patients reported significantly higher childhood trauma scores than healthy control subjects, but they did not differ in their subjective stress experiences. Stress-related activity of limbic areas was neither found in the whole sample nor between the two groups. Instead, increased activity of visual association and temporal areas was observed, but this activation did not differ between patients and HMs. However, patients showed a tendency toward reduced precuneus activity under stress. Adverse childhood experiences were negatively correlated with precuneus, thalamus, and substantia nigra activity across all participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, MD patients and HMs had similar subjective and neurological reactions to stress but differed in childhood trauma experiences and precuneus activity under stress. Further research about the functional connectivity between precuneus, cerebellum, thalamus, and basal ganglia in musicians is needed. © 2024 The Author(s). Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Children with developmental coordination disorder display atypical interhemispheric connectivity during conscious and subconscious rhythmic auditory-motor synchronization

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) display difficulties in perception-action coupling when engaging in tasks requiring predictive timing. We investigated the influence of awareness on auditory-motor adjustments to small and large rhythmic perturbations in the auditory sequence to examine whether children synchronize their movements automatically or through planning and whether those adjustments occur consciously or subconsciously. Electroencephalography (EEG) was used to assess functional connectivity patterns underlying different adjustment strategies. Thirty-two children aged 7-11 participated, including children with DCD and their typically developing (TD) peers with and without musical training. All children automatically adjusted their motor responses to small rhythmic perturbations by employing the anticipatory mode, even when those changes were consciously undetectable. Planned adjustments occurred only when children consciously detected large fluctuations (Δ 20%), which required a shift from predictive to reactive strategies. Compared to TD peers, children with DCD showed reduced interhemispheric connectivity during planned adjustments and displayed similar neural patterns regardless of task constraints. Notably, they benefited from rhythmic entrainment despite having increased variability and lower perceptual acuity. Musical training was associated with enhanced auditory-perceptual timing, reduced variability, and increased interhemispheric coherence. These insights are important for the therapeutic application of auditory/rhythm-based interventions in children with DCD.

Encoding Manual Dexterity through Modulation of Intrinsic α Band Connectivity

The human hand possesses both consolidated motor skills and remarkable flexibility in adapting to ongoing task demands. However, the underlying mechanisms by which the brain balances stability and flexibility remain unknown. In the absence of external input or behavior, spontaneous (intrinsic) brain connectivity is thought to represent a prior of stored memories. In this study, we investigated how manual dexterity modulates spontaneous functional connectivity in the motor cortex during hand movement. Using magnetoencephalography, in 47 human participants (both sexes), we examined connectivity modulations in the α and β frequency bands at rest and during two motor tasks (i.e., finger tapping or toe squeezing). The flexibility and stability of such modulations allowed us to identify two groups of participants with different levels of performance (high and low performers) on the nine-hole peg test, a test of manual dexterity. In the α band, participants with higher manual dexterity showed distributed decreases of connectivity, specifically in the motor cortex, increased segregation, and reduced nodal centrality. Participants with lower manual dexterity showed an opposite pattern. Notably, these patterns from the brain to behavior are mirrored by results from behavior to the brain. Indeed, when participants were divided using the median split of the dexterity score, we found the same connectivity patterns. In summary, this experiment shows that a long-term motor skill-manual dexterity-influences the way the motor systems respond during movements.

Music literacy improves reading skills via bilateral orthographic development

Considerable evidence suggests that musical education induces structural and functional neuroplasticity in the brain. This study aimed to explore the potential impact of such changes on word-reading proficiency. We investigated whether musical training promotes the development of uncharted orthographic regions in the right hemisphere leading to better reading abilities. A total of 60 healthy, right-handed culturally matched professional musicians and controls took part in this research. They were categorised as normo-typical readers based on their reading speed (syl/sec) and subdivided into two groups of relatively good and poor readers. High density EEG/ERPs were recorded while participants engaged in a note or letter detection task. Musicians were more fluent in word, non-word and text reading tests, and faster in detecting both notes and words. They also exhibited greater N170 and P300 responses, and target-non target differences for words than controls. Similarly, good readers showed larger N170 and P300 responses than poor readers. Increased reading skills were associated to a bilateral activation of the occipito/temporal cortex, during music and word reading. Source reconstruction also showed a reduced activation of the left fusiform gyrus, and of areas devoted to attentional/ocular shifting in poor vs. good readers, and in controls vs. musicians. Data suggest that music literacy acquired early in time can shape reading circuits by promoting the specialization of a right-sided reading area, whose activity was here associated with enhanced reading proficiency. In conclusion, music literacy induces measurable neuroplastic changes in the left and right OT cortex responsible for improved word reading ability.

Music performance as knowledge acquisition: a review and preliminary conceptual framework

To what extent does playing a musical instrument contribute to an individual's construction of knowledge? This paper aims to address this question by examining music performance from an embodied perspective and offering a narrative-style review of the main literature on the topic. Drawing from both older theoretical frameworks on motor learning and more recent theories on sensorimotor coupling and integration, this paper seeks to challenge and juxtapose established ideas with contemporary views inspired by recent work on embodied cognitive science. By doing so we advocate a centripetal approach to music performance, contrasting the prevalent centrifugal perspective: the sounds produced during performance not only originate from bodily action (centrifugal), but also cyclically return to it (centripetal). This perspective suggests that playing music involves a dynamic integration of both external and internal factors, transcending mere output-oriented actions and revealing music performance as a form of knowledge acquisition based on real-time sensorimotor experience.

The transformative power of music: Insights into neuroplasticity, health, and disease

Music is a universal language that can elicit profound emotional and cognitive responses. In this literature review, we explore the intricate relationship between music and the brain, from how it is decoded by the nervous system to its therapeutic potential in various disorders. Music engages a diverse network of brain regions and circuits, including sensory-motor processing, cognitive, memory, and emotional components. Music-induced brain network oscillations occur in specific frequency bands, and listening to one's preferred music can grant easier access to these brain functions. Moreover, music training can bring about structural and functional changes in the brain, and studies have shown its positive effects on social bonding, cognitive abilities, and language processing. We also discuss how music therapy can be used to retrain impaired brain circuits in different disorders. Understanding how music affects the brain can open up new avenues for music-based interventions in healthcare, education, and wellbeing.

Calming effect of Clinically Designed Improvisatory Music for patients admitted to the epilepsy monitoring unit during the COVID-19 pandemic: a pilot study

Background

Epilepsy monitoring requires simulating seizure-inducing conditions which frequently causes discomfort to epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU) patients. COVID-19 hospital restrictions added another layer of stress during hospital admissions. The purpose of this pilot study was to provide evidence that live virtual Clinically Designed Improvisatory Music (CDIM) brings relief to EMU patients for their psychological distress.

Methods

Five persons with epilepsy (PWEs) in the EMU during the COVID-19 lockdown participated in the study (average age ± SD = 30.2 ± 6 years). Continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrocardiogram (EKG) were obtained before, during, and after live virtual CDIM. CDIM consisted of 40 minutes of calming music played by a certified clinical music practitioner (CMP) on viola. Post-intervention surveys assessed patients' emotional state on a 1-10 Likert scale. Alpha/beta power spectral density ratio was calculated for each subject across the brain and was evaluated using one-way repeated analysis of variance, comparing 20 minutes before, during, and 20 minutes after CDIM. Post-hoc analysis was performed using paired t-test at the whole brain level and regions with peak changes.

Results

Patients reported enhanced emotional state (9 ± 1.26), decrease in tension (9.6 ± 0.49), decreased restlessness (8.6 ± 0.80), increased pleasure (9.2 ± 0.98), and likelihood to recommend (10 ± 0) on a 10-point Likert scale. Based on one-way repeated analysis of variance, alpha/beta ratio increased at whole-brain analysis (F3,12 = 5.01, P = 0.018) with a peak in midline (F3,12 = 6.63, P = 0.0068 for Cz) and anterior medial frontal region (F3,12 = 6.45, P = 0.0076 for Fz) during CDIM and showed a trend to remain increased post-intervention.

Conclusion

In this pilot study, we found positive effects of CDIM as reported by patients, and an increased alpha/beta ratio with meaningful electroencephalographic correlates due to the calming effects in response to CDIM. Our study provides proof of concept that live virtual CDIM offered demonstrable comfort with biologic correlations for patients admitted in the EMU during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The neuroscience of music – towards ecological validity

Studies in the neuroscience of music gained momentum in the 1990s as an integrated part of the well-controlled experimental research tradition. However, during the past two decades, these studies have moved toward more naturalistic, ecologically valid paradigms. Here, I introduce this move in three frameworks: (i) sound stimulation and empirical paradigms, (ii) study participants, and (iii) methods and contexts of data acquisition. I wish to provide a narrative historical overview of the development of the field and, in parallel, to stimulate innovative thinking to further advance the ecological validity of the studies without overlooking experimental rigor.

Quality standards and recommendations for research in music and neuroplasticity

Research on how music influences brain plasticity has gained momentum in recent years. Considering, however, the nonuniform methodological standards implemented, the findings end up being nonreplicable and less generalizable. To address the need for a standardized baseline of research quality, we gathered all the studies in the music and neuroplasticity field in 2019 and appraised their methodological rigor systematically and critically. The aim was to provide a preliminary and, at the minimum, acceptable quality threshold-and, ipso facto, suggested recommendations-whereupon further discussion and development may take place. Quality appraisal was performed on 89 articles by three independent raters, following a standardized scoring system. The raters' scoring was cross-referenced following an inter-rater reliability measure, and further studied by performing multiple ratings comparisons and matrix analyses. The results for methodological quality were at a quite good level (quantitative articles: mean = 0.737, SD = 0.084; qualitative articles: mean = 0.677, SD = 0.144), following a moderate but statistically significant level of agreement between the raters (W = 0.44, χ² = 117.249, p = 0.020). We conclude that the standards for implementation and reporting are of high quality; however, certain improvements are needed to reach the stringent levels presumed for such an influential interdisciplinary scientific field.

The effect of musicality on language recovery after awake glioma surgery

Introduction

Awake craniotomy is increasingly used to resect intrinsic brain tumors while preserving language. The level of musical training might affect the speed and extend of postoperative language recovery, as increased white matter connectivity in the corpus callosum is described in musicians compared to non-musicians.

Methods

In this cohort study, we included adult patients undergoing treatment for glioma with an awake resection procedure at two neurosurgical centers and assessed language preoperatively (T1) and postoperatively at three months (T2) and one year (T3) with the Diagnostic Instrument for Mild Aphasia (DIMA), transferred to z-scores. Moreover, patients' musicality was divided into three groups based on the Musical Expertise Criterion (MEC) and automated volumetric measures of the corpus callosum were conducted.

Results

We enrolled forty-six patients, between June 2015 and September 2021, and divided in: group A (non-musicians, n = 19, 41.3%), group B (amateur musicians, n = 17, 36.9%) and group C (trained musicians, n = 10, 21.7%). No significant differences on postoperative language course between the three musicality groups were observed in the main analyses. However, a trend towards less deterioration of language (mean/SD z-scores) was observed within the first three months on the phonological domain (A: -0.425/0.951 vs. B: -0.00100/1.14 vs. C: 0.0289/0.566, p-value = 0.19) with a significant effect between non-musicians vs. instrumentalists (A: -0.425/0.951 vs. B + C: 0.201/0.699, p = 0.04). Moreover, a non-significant trend towards a larger volume (mean/SD cm³) of the corpus callosum was observed between the three musicality groups (A: 6.67/1.35 vs. B: 7.09/1.07 vs. C: 8.30/2.30, p = 0.13), with the largest difference of size in the anterior corpus callosum in non-musicians compared to trained musicians (A: 3.28/0.621 vs. C: 4.90/1.41, p = 0.02).

Conclusion

With first study on this topic, we support that musicality contributes to language recovery after awake glioma surgery, possibly attributed to a higher white matter connectivity at the anterior part of the corpus callosum. Our conclusion should be handled with caution and interpreted as hypothesis generating only, as most of our results were not significant. Future studies with larger sample sizes are needed to confirm our hypothesis.

Preferred music-listening level in musicians and non-musicians

The purpose of this study was to establish whether preferred music-listening level differed between musicians and non-musicians, and whether preferred music-listening level was related to music genre preference and lifetime noise exposure. Seventeen musicians (mean age = 29.06 years, SD = 4.74; female n = 9) and 17 non-musicians (mean age = 28.94 years, SD = 4.63; female n = 9) with clinically normal hearing were recruited to listen to six music samples from different genres and one sample of environmental sounds. Participants adjusted the listening level [dB(A)] until the music was loud and enjoyable. This was repeated three times and an average was taken. Lifetime noise exposure was estimated using the Noise Exposure Structured Interview. Preferred music-listening levels of musicians were significantly higher than non-musicians. The preferred music-listening level differed with genre preference, with the participants' favorite tracks being played at 11 dB higher level than the least favorite tracks. There was also a positive correlation between lifetime noise exposure and preferred music-listening level. Musicians prefer to listen to music at higher level than non-musicians and thus may be more susceptible to noise induced hearing loss than non-musicians. As such, musicians in particular would benefit from simple changes in lifestyle and listening habits, including increased awareness of the risks of higher listening levels, as well as the use of hearing protection.

On the Application of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience in Educational Environments

The paper overviews components of neurologic processing efficiencies to develop innovative methodologies and thinking to school-based applications and changes in educational leadership based on sound findings in the cognitive neurosciences applied to schools and learners. Systems science can allow us to better manage classroom-based learning and instruction on the basis of relatively easily evaluated efficiencies or inefficiencies and optimization instead of simply examining achievement. "Medicalizing" the learning process with concepts such as "learning disability" or employing grading methods such as pass-fail does little to aid in understanding the processes that learners employ to acquire, integrate, remember, and apply information learned. The paper endeavors to overview and provided reference to tools that can be employed that allow a better focus on nervous system-based strategic approaches to classroom learning.

Interhemispheric Brain Communication and the Evolution of Turn-Taking in Mammals

In the last 20 years, research on turn-taking and duetting has flourished in at least three, historically separate disciplines: animal behavior, language sciences, and music cognition. While different in scope and methods, all three ultimately share one goal—namely the understanding of timed interactions among conspecifics. In this perspective, we aim at connecting turn-taking and duetting across species from a neural perspective. While we are still far from a defined neuroethology of turn-taking, we argue that the human neuroscience of turn-taking and duetting can inform animal bioacoustics. For this, we focus on a particular concept, interhemispheric connectivity, and its main white-matter substrate, the corpus callosum. We provide an overview of the role of corpus callosum in human neuroscience and interactive music and speech. We hypothesize its mechanistic connection to turn-taking and duetting in our species, and a potential translational link to mammalian research. We conclude by illustrating empirical venues for neuroethological research of turn-taking and duetting in mammals.

An ALE meta-analytic review of musical expertise

Through long-term training, music experts acquire complex and specialized sensorimotor skills, which are paralleled by continuous neuro-anatomical and -functional adaptations. The underlying neuroplasticity mechanisms have been extensively explored in decades of research in music, cognitive, and translational neuroscience. However, the absence of a comprehensive review and quantitative meta-analysis prevents the plethora of variegated findings to ultimately converge into a unified picture of the neuroanatomy of musical expertise. Here, we performed a comprehensive neuroimaging meta-analysis of publications investigating neuro-anatomical and -functional differences between musicians (M) and non-musicians (NM). Eighty-four studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. From these, 58 publications were included in coordinate-based meta-analyses using the anatomic/activation likelihood estimation (ALE) method. This comprehensive approach delivers a coherent cortico-subcortical network encompassing sensorimotor and limbic regions bilaterally. Particularly, M exhibited higher volume/activity in auditory, sensorimotor, interoceptive, and limbic brain areas and lower volume/activity in parietal areas as opposed to NM. Notably, we reveal topographical (dis-)similarities between the identified functional and anatomical networks and characterize their link to various cognitive functions by means of meta-analytic connectivity modelling. Overall, we effectively synthesized decades of research in the field and provide a consistent and controversies-free picture of the neuroanatomy of musical expertise.

Mapping brain structure and function in professional fencers: A model to study training effects on central nervous system plasticity

Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have shown different patterns of structural and functional reorganization in high‐level athletes compared with controls, but little is known about their relationship with interlimb coordination mechanisms. To this aim, we investigated brain structural and functional differences in high‐level fencers compared with nonathlete controls and the MRI substrates of interlimb coordination in elite athletes. Fourteen right‐handed male fencers (median age = 22.3 years) and 15 right‐handed age‐ and sex‐matched healthy subjects (median age = 22.4 years) underwent structural and functional MRI acquisition during the execution of cyclic bimanual‐movements as well as during in‐phase and antiphase hand/foot‐movements of the dominant‐right limbs. No between‐group differences were found in gray matter volumes and white matter architecture. Active‐fMRI showed that controls versus fencers had higher activations in parietal and temporal areas during bimanual‐task; whereas fencers versus controls had higher activations in the basal ganglia. During in‐phase task, controls versus fencers showed higher activation of right cerebellum, whereas fencers had higher activity mainly in frontal areas. The functional‐connectivity (FC) analysis showed that fencers versus controls had an increased FC between left motor cortex and fronto‐temporal areas as well as bilateral thalami during the different tasks. Intensive and prolonged fencing activity is associated with brain functional changes mainly involving frontal regions related to high‐level motor control and planning of complex tasks. These modifications are likely to reflect an optimization of brain networks involved in motor activities, including interlimb coordination tasks, occurring after intensive training.

Music in the brain

Music is ubiquitous across human cultures - as a source of affective and pleasurable experience, moving us both physically and emotionally - and learning to play music shapes both brain structure and brain function. Music processing in the brain - namely, the perception of melody, harmony and rhythm - has traditionally been studied as an auditory phenomenon using passive listening paradigms. However, when listening to music, we actively generate predictions about what is likely to happen next. This enactive aspect has led to a more comprehensive understanding of music processing involving brain structures implicated in action, emotion and learning. Here we review the cognitive neuroscience literature of music perception. We show that music perception, action, emotion and learning all rest on the human brain's fundamental capacity for prediction - as formulated by the predictive coding of music model. This Review elucidates how this formulation of music perception and expertise in individuals can be extended to account for the dynamics and underlying brain mechanisms of collective music making. This in turn has important implications for human creativity as evinced by music improvisation. These recent advances shed new light on what makes music meaningful from a neuroscientific perspective.

EEG Power Band Asymmetries in Children with and without Classical Ensemble Music Training

Much evidence shows that music training influences the development of functional brain organization and cerebral asymmetry in an auditory-motor integrative neural system also associated with language and speech. Such overlap suggests that music training could be used for interventions in disadvantaged populations. Accordingly, we investigated neurofunctional changes associated with the influence of socially based classical ensemble music (CEM) training on executive auditory functions of children from low socioeconomic status (LSES), as compared to untrained counterparts. We conducted a novel ROI-focused reanalysis of stimulus-locked event-related electroencephalographic (EEG) band power data previously recorded from fifteen LSES children (9–10 years), with and without CEM, while performing a series of auditory Go/No-Go trials (involving 1100 Hz or 2000 Hz tones). An analysis of collapsed Alpha2, Beta1, Beta2, Delta, and Theta EEG bands showed significant differences in increased and decreased left asymmetry between the CEM and the Comparison group in key frontal and central electrodes typically associated with learning music. Overall, in Go trials, the CEM group responded more quickly and accurately. Linear regression analyses revealed both positive and negative correlations between left hemispheric asymmetry and behavioral measures of PPVT score, auditory sensitivity, Go accuracy, and reaction times. The pattern of results suggests that tone frequency and EEG asymmetries may be attributable to a shift to left lateralization as a byproduct of CEM. Our findings suggest that left hemispheric laterality associated with ensemble music training may improve the efficiency of productive language processing and, accordingly, may be considered as a supportive intervention for LSES children and youth.

Six Months of Piano Training in Healthy Elderly Stabilizes White Matter Microstructure in the Fornix, Compared to an Active Control Group

While aging is characterized by neurodegeneration, musical training is associated with experience-driven brain plasticity and protection against age-related cognitive decline. However, evidence for the positive effects of musical training mostly comes from cross-sectional studies while randomized controlled trials with larger sample sizes are rare. The current study compares the influence of six months of piano training with music listening/musical culture lessons in 121 musically naïve healthy elderly individuals with regard to white matter properties using fixel-based analysis. Analyses revealed a significant fiber density decline in the music listening/musical culture group (but not in the piano group), after six months, in the fornix, which is a white matter tract that naturally declines with age. In addition, these changes in fiber density positively correlated to episodic memory task performances and the amount of weekly piano training. These findings not only provide further evidence for the involvement of the fornix in episodic memory encoding but also more importantly show that learning to play the piano at an advanced age may stabilize white matter microstructure of the fornix.

From Hemispheric Asymmetry through Sensorimotor Experiences to Cognitive Outcomes in Children with Cerebral Palsy

Recent neuroimaging studies allowed us to explore abnormal brain structures and interhemispheric connectivity in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Behavioral researchers have long reported that children with CP exhibit suboptimal performance in different cognitive domains (e.g., receptive and expressive language skills, reading, mental imagery, spatial processing, subitizing, math, and executive functions). However, there has been very limited cross-domain research involving these two areas of scientific inquiry. To stimulate such research, this perspective paper proposes some possible neurological mechanisms involved in the cognitive delays and impairments in children with CP. Additionally, the paper examines the ways motor and sensorimotor experience during the development of these neural substrates could enable more optimal development for children with CP. Understanding these developmental mechanisms could guide more effective interventions to promote the development of both sensorimotor and cognitive skills in children with CP.

Piano Training Enhances Executive Functions and Psychosocial Outcomes in Aging: Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial

Objectives

Preliminary evidence suggests piano training may enhance areas of executive functions and psychosocial outcomes in aging adults. However, little is known regarding specific cognitive outcomes affected and whether or not enhancements are sustainable. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of piano training on cognitive performance, psychosocial well-being, and physiological stress and immune-function, in older adults.

Methods

Older adults (N=155, 60-80 years) completed an initial three-hour assessment of standardized cognitive and psychosocial measures. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: piano training, computer-assisted cognitive training, or a no treatment control group. Training groups completed a 16-week program with two group training sessions per week for 90 minutes each session. All participants completed a standard battery of executive functions (working memory, processing speed, verbal fluency), psychosocial measures (musical and general self-efficacy, mood), and physiological measures (cortisol and immune-function) at pretesting, posttesting, and at a three-month follow-up time point.

Results

Results showed that piano training and computer-assisted cognitive training enhanced working memory and processing speed as compared to controls. Piano training significantly increased verbal fluency skills in category switching, as compared to computer-assisted cognitive training and no treatment controls. Participants in piano training demonstrated enhanced general and musical self-efficacy post-training; however, no significant differences were found for physiological measures.

Discussion

Piano training resulted in a unique advantage in category switching as compared to computer-assisted cognitive training and no treatment controls. Music training programs may mitigate or prevent cognitive deficits in verbal skills.

A callosal biomarker of behavioral intervention outcomes for autism spectrum disorder? A case-control feasibility study with diffusion tensor imaging

Tentative results from feasibility analyses are critical for planning future randomized control trials (RCTs) in the emerging field of neural biomarkers of behavioral interventions. The current feasibility study used MRI-derived diffusion imaging data to investigate whether it would be possible to identify neural biomarkers of a behavioral intervention among people diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The corpus callosum has been linked to cognitive processing and callosal abnormalities have been previously found in people diagnosed with ASD. We used a case-control design to evaluate the association between the type of intervention people diagnosed with ASD had previously received and their current white matter integrity in the corpus callosum. Twenty-six children and adolescents with ASD, with and without a history of parent-managed behavioral intervention, underwent an MRI scan with a diffusion data acquisition sequence. We conducted tract-based spatial statistics and a region of interest analysis. The fractional anisotropy values (believed to indicate white matter integrity) in the posterior corpus callosum was significantly different across cases (exposed to parent-managed behavioral intervention) and controls (not exposed to parent-managed behavioral intervention). The effect was modulated by the intensity of the behavioral intervention according to a dose-response relationship. The current feasibility case-control study provides the basis for estimating the statistical power required for future RCTs in this field. In addition, the study demonstrated the effectiveness of purposely-developed motion control protocols and helped to identify regions of interest candidates. Potential clinical applications of diffusion tensor imaging in the evaluation of treatment outcomes in ASD are discussed.

General principles of brain electromagnetic rhythmic oscillations and implications for neuroplasticity

Neuro-plasticity describes the ability of the brain in achieving novel functions, either by transforming its internal connectivity, or by changing the elements of which it is made, meaning that, only those changes, that affect both structural and functional aspects of the system, can be defined as "plastic." The concept of plasticity can be applied to molecular as well as to environmental events that can be recognized as the basic mechanism by which our brain reacts to the internal and external stimuli. When considering brain plasticity within a clinical context-that is the process linked with changes of brain functions following a lesion- the term "reorganization" is somewhat synonymous, referring to the specific types of structural/functional modifications observed as axonal sprouting, long-term synaptic potentiation/inhibition or to the plasticity related genomic responses. Furthermore, brain rewires during maturation, and aging thus maintaining a remarkable learning capacity, allowing it to acquire a wide range of skills, from motor actions to complex abstract reasoning, in a lifelong expression. In this review, the contribution on the "neuroplasticity" topic coming from advanced analysis of EEG rhythms is put forward.

Amateur singing benefits speech perception in aging under certain conditions of practice: behavioural and neurobiological mechanisms

Limited evidence has shown that practising musical activities in aging, such as choral singing, could lessen age-related speech perception in noise (SPiN) difficulties. However, the robustness and underlying mechanism of action of this phenomenon remain unclear. In this study, we used surface-based morphometry combined with a moderated mediation analytic approach to examine whether singing-related plasticity in auditory and dorsal speech stream regions is associated with better SPiN capabilities. 36 choral singers and 36 non-singers aged 20-87 years underwent cognitive, auditory, and SPiN assessments. Our results provide important new insights into experience-dependent plasticity by revealing that, under certain conditions of practice, amateur choral singing is associated with age-dependent structural plasticity within auditory and dorsal speech regions, which is associated with better SPiN performance in aging. Specifically, the conditions of practice that were associated with benefits on SPiN included frequent weekly practice at home, several hours of weekly group singing practice, singing in multiple languages, and having received formal singing training. These results suggest that amateur choral singing is associated with improved SPiN through a dual mechanism involving auditory processing and auditory-motor integration and may be dose dependent, with more intense singing associated with greater benefit. Our results, thus, reveal that the relationship between singing practice and SPiN is complex, and underscore the importance of considering singing practice behaviours in understanding the effects of musical activities on the brain-behaviour relationship.

An Introduction to Musical Interactions

The article presents a contextual survey of eight contributions in the special issue Musical Interactions (Volume I) in Multimodal Technologies and Interaction. The presentation includes (1) a critical examination of what it means to be musical, to devise the concept of music proper to MTI as well as multicultural proximity, and (2) a conceptual framework for instrumentation, design, and assessment of musical interaction research through five enabling dimensions: Affordance; Design Alignment; Adaptive Learning; Second-Order Feedback; Temporal Integration. Each dimension is discussed and applied in the survey. The results demonstrate how the framework provides an interdisciplinary scope required for musical interaction, and how this approach may offer a coherent way to describe and assess approaches to research and design as well as implementations of interactive musical systems. Musical interaction stipulates musical liveness for experiencing both music and technologies. While music may be considered ontologically incomplete without a listener, musical interaction is defined as ontological completion of a state of music and listening through a listener’s active engagement with musical resources in multimodal information flow.

Brain Plasticity Induced by Musical Expertise on Proactive and Reactive Cognitive Functions

Proactive and reactive brain activities usually refer to processes occurring in anticipation or in response to perceptual and/or cognitive events. Previous studies found that, in auditory tasks, musical expertise improves performance mainly at the reactive stage of processing. In the present work, we aimed at acknowledging the effects of musical practice on proactive brain activities as a result of neuroplasticity processes occurring at the level of anticipatory motor/cognitive functions. Accordingly, performance and electroencephalographic recordings were compared between professional musicians and non-musicians during an auditory go/no-go task. Both proactive (pre-stimulus) and reactive (post-stimulus) event-related potentials (ERPs) were analyzed. Behavioral findings showed improved performance in musicians compared to non-musicians in terms of accuracy. For what concerns electrophysiological results, different ERP patterns of activity both before and after the presentation of the auditory stimulus emerged between groups. Specifically, musicians showed increased proactive cognitive activity in prefrontal scalp areas, previously localized in the prefrontal cortex, and reduced anticipatory excitability in frontal scalp areas, previously localized in the associative auditory cortices (reflected by the pN and aP components, respectively). In the reactive stage of processing (i.e., following stimulus presentation), musicians showed enhanced early (N1) and late (P3) components, in line with longstanding literature of enhanced auditory processing in this group. Crucially, we also found a significant correlation between the N1 component and years of musical practice. We interpreted these findings in terms of neural plasticity processes resulting from musical training, which lead musicians to high efficiency in auditory sensorial anticipation and more intense cognitive control and sound analysis.

Impact of Early Rhythmic Training on Language Acquisition and Electrophysiological Functioning Underlying Auditory Processing: Feasibility and Preliminary Findings in Typically Developing Infants

Previous evidence has shown that early auditory processing impacts later linguistic development, and targeted training implemented at early ages can enhance auditory processing skills, with better expected language development outcomes. This study focuses on typically developing infants and aims to test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of music training based on active synchronization with complex musical rhythms on the linguistic outcomes and electrophysiological functioning underlying auditory processing. Fifteen infants participated in the training (RTr+) and were compared with two groups of infants not attending any structured activities during the same time frame (RTr−, N = 14). At pre- and post-training, expressive and receptive language skills were assessed using standardized tests, and auditory processing skills were characterized through an electrophysiological non-speech multi-feature paradigm. Results reveal that RTr+ infants showed significantly broader improvement in both expressive and receptive pre-language skills. Moreover, at post-training, they presented an electrophysiological pattern characterized by shorter latency of two peaks (N2* and P2), reflecting a neural change detection process: these shifts in latency go beyond those seen due to maturation alone. These results provide preliminary evidence on the efficacy of our training in improving early linguistic competences, and in modifying the neural underpinnings of auditory processing in infants.

Music-reading expertise associates with face but not Chinese character processing ability

A growing number of behavioural and neuroimaging studies have investigated the cognitive mechanisms and neural substrates underlying various forms of visual expertise, such as face and word processing. However, it remains poorly understood whether and to what extent the acquisition of one form of expertise would be associated with that of another. The current study examined the relationship between music-reading expertise and face and Chinese character processing abilities. In a series of experiments, music experts and novices performed discrimination and recognition tasks of musical notations, faces, and words. Results consistently showed that musical experts responded more accurately to musical notations and faces, but not to words, than did musical novices. More intriguingly, the music expert's age of training onset could well predict their face but not word processing performance: the earlier musical experts began musical notation reading, the better their face processing performance. Taken together, our findings provide preliminary and converging evidence that music-reading expertise links with face, but not word, processing, and lend support to the notion that the development of different types of visual expertise may not be independent, but rather interact with each other during their acquisition.

The benefit of assessing implicit sequence learning in pianists with an eye-tracked serial reaction time task

Playing piano professionally has been shown to benefit implicit motor sequence learning. The aim of the current study was to determine whether this advantage reflects generally enhanced implicit sequence learning unrelated to pianists' higher motor and/or visual-motor coordination abilities. We examined implicit sequence learning using the ocular serial reaction time (O-SRT) task, a manual-free eye-tracked version of the standard SRT, in 29 pianists and 31 controls. Reaction times (RT) and correct anticipations (CA) of several phases describing implicit sequence learning were analyzed. Furthermore, explicit sequence knowledge was compared between the groups, and relationships between implicit sequence learning with explicit sequence knowledge or demographic measures were evaluated. Pianists demonstrated superiority in all critical phases of implicit sequence learning (RT and CA). Moreover, pianists acquired higher explicit sequence knowledge, and only in pianists was explicit sequence knowledge related to implicit sequence learning. Our results demonstrate that pianists' superiority in implicit sequence learning is due to a higher general implicit sequence learning ability. Hence, we can exclude that higher motor and/or visual-motor coordination abilities are related to pianists' higher implicit sequence learning. Furthermore, the significant relationship of implicit sequence learning and explicit sequence knowledge suggests that pianists either used explicit strategies to support implicit sequence learning, had better explicit access to sequence knowledge, or both.

Structural properties of corpus callosum are associated differently with verbal creativity and visual creativity

Recent neuroimaging studies demonstrate that creativity is related to brain regions across both hemispheres, and the corpus callosum forms the structural basis of inter-hemispheric information exchange. However, the findings regarding the relationship between inter-hemispheric interaction and creativity remain inconsistent, which may be caused by different types of creativity and neural features being adopted. To clarify the inconsistency, and understand how inter-hemispheric interactions are related to different kinds of creativity, we explored the correlation between eight structural measures of the corpus callosum (CC) and two different domains of creativity [verbal creativity (VerC) and visual creativity (VisC)] using a large healthy-adult sample (n = 446). The results showed that VerC was positively correlated with fractional anisotropy (FA) and negatively correlated with the radial diffusivity (RD) of CC; whereas there was no significant association between VisC and CC measures. These results persisted after regressing VisC from VerC, regressing VerC from VisC, and regress out general intelligence from both creativity measures. In summary, we showed that the structural properties of corpus collosum are associated in different ways with two domains of creativity, i.e., verbal creativity and visual creativity, which enriches our understanding of the underlying neural mechanism in different types of creativity.

Understanding Sensitive Period Effects in Musical Training

Adult ability in complex cognitive domains, including music, is commonly thought of as the product of gene-environment interactions, where genetic predispositions influence and are modulated by experience, resulting in the final phenotypic expression. Recently, however, the important contribution of maturation to gene-environment interactions has become better understood. Thus, the timing of exposure to specific experience, such as music training, has been shown to produce long-term impacts on adult behaviour and the brain. Work from our lab and others shows that musical training before the ages of 7-9 enhances performance on musical tasks and modifies brain structure and function, sometimes in unexpected ways. The goal of this paper is to present current evidence for sensitive period effects for musical training in the context of what is known about brain maturation and to present a framework that integrates genetic, environmental and maturational influences on the development of musical skill. We believe that this framework can also be applied more broadly to understanding how predispositions, brain development and experience interact.

Sex Differences are Reflected in Microstructural White Matter Alterations of Musical Sophistication: A Diffusion MRI Study

Background: The human-specified ability to engage with different kinds of music in sophisticated ways is named “Musical Sophistication.” Herein, we investigated specific white matter (WM) tracts that are associated with musical sophistication and musicality in both genders, separately, using Diffusion MRI connectometry approach. We specifically aimed to explore potential sex differences regarding WM alterations correlated with musical sophistication.

Methods: 123 healthy participants [70 (56.9%) were male, mean age = 36.80 ± 18.86 year], who were evaluated for musical sophistication using Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI) self-assessment instrument from the LEMON database, were recruited in this study. The WM correlates of two Gold-MSI subscales (active engagement and music training) were analyzed. Images were prepared and analyzed with diffusion connectometry to construct the local connectome. Multiple regression models were then fitted to address the correlation of local connectomes with Gold-MSI components with the covariates of age and handedness.

Results: a significant positive correlation between WM integrity in the corpus callosum (CC), right corticospinal tract (CST), cingulum, middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP), bilateral parieto-pontine tract, bilateral cerebellum, and left arcuate fasciculus (AF) and both active engagement [false discovery rate (FDR) = 0.008] and music training (FDR = 0.057) was detected in males. However, WM integrity in the body of CC, MCP, and cerebellum in females showed an inverse association with active engagement (FDR = 0.046) and music training (FDR = 0.032).

Conclusion: WM microstructures with functional connection with motor and somatosensory areas (CST, cortico-pontine tracts, CC, cerebellum, cingulum, and MCP) and language processing area (AF) have significant correlation with music engagement and training. Our findings show that these associations are different between males and females, which could potentially account for distinctive mechanisms related to musical perception and musical abilities across genders.

Benefit of Musical Training for Speech Perception and Cognition Later in Life

Purpose The aim of this study was to determine the long-term associations of musical training with speech perception in adverse conditions and cognition in a longitudinal cohort study of middle-age to older adults. Method This study is based on Epidemiology of Hearing Loss Study participants. We asked participants at baseline (1993-1995) about their musical training. Speech perception (word recognition in competing message; Northwestern University Auditory Test Number 6), cognitive function (cognitive test battery), and impairment (self-report or surrogate report of Alzheimer's disease or dementia, and/or a Mini-Mental State Examination score ≤ 24) were assessed up to 5 times over the 20-year follow-up. We included 2,938 Epidemiology of Hearing Loss Study participants who had musical training data and at least one follow-up of speech perception and/or cognitive assessment. We used linear mixed-effects models to determine associations between musicianship and decline in speech perception and cognitive function over time and Cox regression models to evaluate associations of musical training with 20-year cumulative incidence of speech perception and cognitive impairment. Models were adjusted for age, sex, and occupation and repeated with additional adjustment for health-related confounders and education. Results Musicians showed less speech perception decline over time with stronger effects in women (0.16% difference, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.05, 0.26]). Among men, musicians had, on average, better speech perception than nonmusicians (3.41% difference, 95% CI [0.62, 6.20]) and were less likely to develop a cognitive impairment than nonmusicians (hazard ratio = 0.58, 95% CI [0.37, 0.91]). Conclusions Musicians showed an advantage in speech perception abilities and cognition later in life and less decline over time with different magnitudes of effect sizes in men and women. Associations remained with further adjustment, indicating that some degree of the advantage of musical training is independent of socioeconomic or health differences. If confirmed, these findings could have implications for developing speech perception intervention and prevention strategies. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14825454.

The frontotemporal organization of the arcuate fasciculus and its relationship with speech perception in young and older amateur singers and non-singers

The ability to perceive speech in noise (SPiN) declines with age. Although the etiology of SPiN decline is not well understood, accumulating evidence suggests a role for the dorsal speech stream. While age-related decline within the dorsal speech stream would negatively affect SPiN performance, experience-induced neuroplastic changes within the dorsal speech stream could positively affect SPiN performance. Here, we investigated the relationship between SPiN performance and the structure of the arcuate fasciculus (AF), which forms the white matter scaffolding of the dorsal speech stream, in aging singers and non-singers. Forty-three non-singers and 41 singers aged 20 to 87 years old completed a hearing evaluation and a magnetic resonance imaging session that included High Angular Resolution Diffusion Imaging. The groups were matched for sex, age, education, handedness, cognitive level, and musical instrument experience. A subgroup of participants completed syllable discrimination in the noise task. The AF was divided into 10 segments to explore potential local specializations for SPiN. The results show that, in carefully matched groups of singers and non-singers (a) myelin and/or axonal membrane deterioration within the bilateral frontotemporal AF segments are associated with SPiN difficulties in aging singers and non-singers; (b) the structure of the AF is different in singers and non-singers; (c) these differences are not associated with a benefit on SPiN performance for singers. This study clarifies the etiology of SPiN difficulties by supporting the hypothesis for the role of aging of the dorsal speech stream.

Individual Differences in Cognitive Constructs: A Comparison Between American and Chinese Culture Groups

Previous studies on human cognition show that people with different cultural backgrounds may differ in various ways. However, there are other unexplored possibilities for cultural differences including degree of handedness thought to reflect hemispheric coordination, reliance on verbal versus visual representation in problem solving, and working memory capacity both spatial and operational. We assessed each of these using the Edinburgh scale, a validated scale of style of processing, and two automatic working memory span tasks. Participants were either native Chinese students (who spoke Mandarin) or American students. Data showed that culture impacted the set of measures but gender did not and these factors did not interact. Chinese and American students showed the largest difference in their operational working memory. We also examined the pattern of correlations among the measures across the two groups and found differences due to cultural group as well.

The impact of early musical training on striatal functional connectivity

Evidence from language, visual and sensorimotor learning suggests that training early in life is more effective. The present work explores the hypothesis that learning during sensitive periods involves distinct brain networks in addition to those involved when learning later in life. Expert pianists were tested who started their musical training early (<7 years of age; n = 21) or late (n = 15), but were matched for total lifetime practice. Motor timing expertise was assessed using a musical scale playing task. Brain activity at rest was measured using fMRI and compared with a control group of nonmusicians (n = 17). Functional connectivity from seeds in the striatum revealed a striatal-cortical-sensorimotor network that was observed only in the early-onset group. In this network, higher connectivity correlated with greater motor timing expertise, which resulted from early/late group differences in motor timing expertise. By contrast, networks that differentiated musicians and nonmusicians, namely a striatal-occipital-frontal-cerebellar network in which connectivity was higher in musicians, tended to not show differences between early and late musicians and not be correlated with motor timing expertise. These results parcel musical sensorimotor neuroplasticity into a set of musicianship-related networks and a distinct set of predominantly early-onset networks. The findings lend support to the possibility that we can learn skills more easily early in development because during sensitive periods we recruit distinct brain networks that are no longer implicated in learning later in life.

fNIRS & e-drum: An ecological approach to monitor hemodynamic and behavioural effects of rhythmic auditory cueing training

Converging evidence suggests a beneficial effect of rhythmic music-therapy in easing motor dysfunctions. Nevertheless, the neural systems underpinning both the direct effect and the influence of rhythm on movement control and execution during training in ecological settings are still largely unknown. In this study, we propose an ecological approach to monitor brain activity and behavioural performance during rhythmic auditory cueing short-term training. Our approach envisages the combination of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique that allows unconstrained movements of participants, with electronic drum (e-drum), which is an instrument able to collect behavioural tapping data in real time. The behavioural and brain effects of this short-term training were investigated on a group of healthy participants, who well tolerated the experimental settings, since none of them withdrew from the study. The rhythmic auditory cueing short-term training improved beat regularity and decreased group variability. At the group level, the training resulted in a reduction of brain activity primarily in premotor areas. Furthermore, participants with the highest behavioural improvement during training showed the smallest reduction in brain activity. Overall, we conclude that our study could pave the way towards translating the proposed approach to clinical settings.

Musical Training in the Development of Empathy and Prosocial Behaviors

Music not only regulates mood but also promotes the development and maintenance of empathy and social understanding. Since empathy is crucial for well-being and indispensable in social life, it is necessary to develop strategies to improve empathy and prosocial behaviors. To fulfill this aim, researchers have extensively investigated the effect of intensive musical training on the development of empathy. Here, we first summarize evidence showing the powerful influence of musical training on the development of empathy and then discuss psychological mechanisms responsible for those observations. The conclusions drawn from most previous studies were mainly based on behavioral measurements, while the neural basis of musical training in the development of the empathic brain is still unclear. Fortunately, brain imaging research has contributed greatly to our understanding of the neural underpinnings associated with musical training and its possible connection to the development of the empathic brain. One of the most distinctive signatures of musical training is structural and functional changes of multiple brain regions, and such changes might be related to some of the empathic behaviors observed in musically trained children. Therefore, intensive musical training in childhood may increase levels of empathy, and applied research is required to optimize the training strategy before implementing music education in empathy regulation. Moreover, future longitudinal studies are needed to better understand neural mechanisms underlying the causal effect of musical training on empathy development. These findings have important implications for understanding the development of the empathic brain and for improving prosocial behaviors.

The Brain Alteration of Seafarer Revealed by Activated Functional Connectivity Mode in fMRI Data Analysis

As a special occupational group, the working and living environments faced by seafarers are greatly different from those of land. It is easy to affect the psychological and physiological activities of seafarers, which inevitably lead to changes in the brain functional activities of seafarers. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the neural activity rules of seafarers' brain. In view of this, this paper studied the seafarers' brain alteration at the activated voxel level based on functional magnetic resonance imaging technology by comparing the differences in functional connectivities (FCs) between seafarers and non-seafarers. Firstly, the activated voxels of each group were obtained by independence component analysis, and then the distribution of these voxels in the brain and the common activated voxels between the two groups were statistically analyzed. Next, the FCs between the common activated voxels of the two groups were calculated and obtained the FCs that had significant differences between them through two-sample T-test. Finally, all FCs and FCs with significant differences (DFCs) between the common activated voxels were used as the features for the support vector machine to classify seafarers and non-seafarers. The results showed that DFCs between the activated voxels had better recognition ability for seafarers, especially for Precuneus_L and Precuneus_R, which may play an important role in the classification prediction of seafarers and non-seafarers, so that provided a new perspective for studying the specificity of neurological activities of seafarers.

Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Mathematical Expertise

To what extent are different levels of expertise reflected in the functional connectivity of the brain? We addressed this question by using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in mathematicians versus non-mathematicians. To this end, we investigated how the two groups of participants differ in the correlation of their spontaneous blood oxygen level-dependent fluctuations across the whole brain regions during resting state. Moreover, by using the classification algorithm in machine learning, we investigated whether the resting-state fMRI networks between mathematicians and non-mathematicians were distinguished depending on features of functional connectivity. We showed diverging involvement of the frontal-thalamic-temporal connections for mathematicians and the medial-frontal areas to precuneus and the lateral orbital gyrus to thalamus connections for non-mathematicians. Moreover, mathematicians who had higher scores in mathematical knowledge showed a weaker connection strength between the left and right caudate nucleus, demonstrating the connections' characteristics related to mathematical expertise. Separate functional networks between the two groups were validated with a maximum classification accuracy of 91.19% using the distinct resting-state fMRI-based functional connectivity features. We suggest the advantageous role of preconfigured resting-state functional connectivity, as well as the neural efficiency for experts' successful performance.

Musical Expertise Shapes Functional and Structural Brain Networks Independent of Absolute Pitch Ability

Professional musicians are a popular model for investigating experience-dependent plasticity in human large-scale brain networks. A minority of musicians possess absolute pitch, the ability to name a tone without reference. The study of absolute pitch musicians provides insights into how a very specific talent is reflected in brain networks. Previous studies of the effects of musicianship and absolute pitch on large-scale brain networks have yielded highly heterogeneous findings regarding the localization and direction of the effects. This heterogeneity was likely influenced by small samples and vastly different methodological approaches. Here, we conducted a comprehensive multimodal assessment of effects of musicianship and absolute pitch on intrinsic functional and structural connectivity using a variety of commonly used and state-of-the-art multivariate methods in the largest sample to date (n = 153 female and male human participants; 52 absolute pitch musicians, 51 non-absolute pitch musicians, and 50 non-musicians). Our results show robust effects of musicianship in interhemispheric and intrahemispheric connectivity in both structural and functional networks. Crucially, most of the effects were replicable in both musicians with and without absolute pitch compared with non-musicians. However, we did not find evidence for an effect of absolute pitch on intrinsic functional or structural connectivity in our data: The two musician groups showed strikingly similar networks across all analyses. Our results suggest that long-term musical training is associated with robust changes in large-scale brain networks. The effects of absolute pitch on neural networks might be subtle, requiring very large samples or task-based experiments to be detected.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A question that has fascinated neuroscientists, psychologists, and musicologists for a long time is how musicianship and absolute pitch, the rare talent to name a tone without reference, are reflected in large-scale networks of the human brain. Much is still unknown as previous studies have reported widely inconsistent results based on small samples. Here, we investigate the largest sample of musicians and non-musicians to date (n = 153) using a multitude of established and novel analysis methods. Results provide evidence for robust effects of musicianship on functional and structural networks that were replicable in two separate groups of musicians and independent of absolute pitch ability.

How Musical Training Shapes the Adult Brain: Predispositions and Neuroplasticity

Learning to play a musical instrument is a complex task that integrates multiple sensory modalities and higher-order cognitive functions. Therefore, musical training is considered a useful framework for the research on training-induced neuroplasticity. However, the classical nature-or-nurture question remains, whether the differences observed between musicians and non-musicians are due to predispositions or result from the training itself. Here we present a review of recent publications with strong focus on experimental designs to better understand both brain reorganization and the neuronal markers of predispositions when learning to play a musical instrument. Cross-sectional studies identified structural and functional differences between the brains of musicians and non-musicians, especially in regions related to motor control and auditory processing. A few longitudinal studies showed functional changes related to training while listening to and producing music, in the motor network and its connectivity with the auditory system, in line with the outcomes of cross-sectional studies. Parallel changes within the motor system and between the motor and auditory systems were revealed for structural connectivity. In addition, potential predictors of musical learning success were found including increased brain activation in the auditory and motor systems during listening, the microstructure of the arcuate fasciculus, and the functional connectivity between the auditory and the motor systems. We show that “the musical brain” is a product of both the natural human neurodiversity and the training practice.

The challenge of being slow: Effects of tempo, laterality, and experience on dance movement consistency

In dance, music, or sports, reproducibility and consistency as well as bilateral dexterity/coordination of movement are crucial for motor control. Research into the biomechanics of movement consistency and variability is important for motor learning to achieve proficiency and maximize outcome reproduction and stability as well as to reduce the risk of injury. Thirty-six participants were instructed to perform a repetitive circular, ipsilateral motion of arms and legs at three different tempi, while being recorded with optical motion capture. Two velocity-based consistency measures were developed an overall measure of consistency and a laterality difference measure. Maintaining velocity consistency was more challenging at slower than at faster tempi, suggesting that slow movement could require more attentional focus and thus become more variable. Music experience resulted in higher consistency, especially on the subdominant body side, possibly due to extensive bilateral training. Outcomes could have potential implications for music instrument, dance, and sports practice and training.

Music Playing and Interhemispheric Communication: Older Professional Musicians Outperform Age-Matched Non-Musicians in Fingertip Cross-Localization Test

OBJECTIVE

Numerous investigations have documented that age-related changes in the integrity of the corpus callosum are associated with age-related decline in the interhemispheric transfer of information. Conversely, there is accumulating evidence for more efficient white matter organization of the corpus callosum in individuals with extensive musical training. However, the relationship between making music and accuracy in interhemispheric transfer remains poorly explored.

METHODS

To test the hypothesis that musicians show enhanced functional connectivity between the two hemispheres, 65 professional musicians (aged 56-90 years) and 65 age- and sex-matched non-musicians performed the fingertip cross-localization test. In this task, subjects must respond to a tactile stimulus presented to one hand using the ipsilateral (intra-hemispheric test) or contralateral (inter-hemispheric test) hand. Because the transfer of information from one hemisphere to another may imply a loss of accuracy, the value of the difference between the intrahemispheric and interhemispheric tests can be utilized as a reliable measure of the effectiveness of hemispheric interactions.

RESULTS

Older professional musicians show significantly greater accuracy in tactile interhemispheric transfer than non-musicians who suffer from age-related decline.

CONCLUSIONS

Musicians have more efficient interhemispheric communication than age-matched non-musicians. This finding is in keeping with studies showing that individuals with extensive musical training have a larger corpus callosum. The results are discussed in relation to relevant data suggesting that music positively influences aging brain plasticity.

Implications of musical practice in central auditory processing: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies have shown that musical practice and training are effective and have the potential to assist in the acquisition and improvement of auditory skills.

OBJECTIVE

To verify the scientific evidence on the implications of musical practice in central auditory processing.

METHODS

A systematic review was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), using the Medline (Pubmed), LILACS, SciELO, BIREME, Scopus and Web of Science databases. The search period for the articles covered the last 5 years (2015-2020), without restriction of language and location. The quality of the articles was assessed, and the review included articles with a minimum score of 6 in a modified literature quality scale.

RESULTS

Initially, 1362 publications were found, of which 1338 were excluded after the title screening, 15 were excluded due to the abstract, with nine articles being analyzed in full and four of them excluded after the analysis, as they did not answer the guiding question proposed for this research. Five articles that met the proposed inclusion criteria were admitted for this research. It was found that in adults, musical ability is associated with better performance of several auditory processing skills, as well as the fact that musical training in children promoted an accelerated maturity of auditory processing and exposure to music facilitated the learning of auditory information in newborns.

CONCLUSION

Considering the scientific evidence, it was found that the musical experience can improve specific skills of the central auditory processing, regardless of age, optimizing children's linguistic development.

Why Is an Early Start of Training Related to Musical Skills in Adulthood? A Genetically Informative Study

Experts in domains such as music or sports often start training early. It has been suggested that this may reflect a sensitive period in childhood for skill acquisition. However, it could be that familial factors (e.g., genetics) contribute to the association. Here, we examined the effect of age of onset of musical training on musical aptitude and achievement in professional musicians (n = 310) and twins (n = 7,786). In line with previous literature, results showed that an earlier age of onset was associated with higher aptitude and achievement in both samples. After we adjusted for lifetime practice hours, age of onset was associated only with aptitude (p < .001; achievement: p > .14). Twin analyses showed that the association with aptitude was fully explained by familial factors. Thus, these findings provide little support for a sensitive period for music but highlight that familiar factors play an important role for associations between age of onset of training and skills in adulthood.

Physiological Differences in Hand and Face Areas of the Primary Motor Cortex in Skilled Wind and String Musicians

The process of learning and playing a musical instrument modulates the structural and functional organization of cortical motor networks. In the present study the excitability and short-term functional plasticity of face and hand areas of primary motor cortex (M1) were compared in woodwind musicians (WM), string musicians (SM) and non-musicians (NM) to test the hypothesis that neurophysiological adaptations to the long-term experience of playing a musical instrument are site-specific and related to the particular physiological properties of the representation area in M1. Twenty-two musicians (11 SM, 11 WM) and 11 NM participated in the study. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to probe rest and active short-latency intracortical inhibition (SICI), interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) and response to paired associative stimulation (PAS). TMS-induced motor evoked potentials (MEP) were recorded from the depressor anguli oris (DAO) and the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscles, respectively. Rest and active SICI were the same in all groups (all p > 0.05). WM exhibited significant IHI in the DAO (p = 0.031), in contrast to its absence in SM and NM. Compared with NM and WM, the PAS-induced increase in MEP amplitude in SM was significantly larger in hand M1 (p = 0.008) but not in face M1. In conclusion, neurophysiological adaptations differ between WM, in whom control of the embouchure is highly important, and SM who perform a large range of sequential finger movements and are site-specific in M1.