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The pathology of Chironex fleckeri venom and known biological mechanisms. Toxicon X 2020; 6:100026. [PMID: 32550582 PMCID: PMC7285912 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2020.100026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The large box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri is found in northern Australian waters. A sting from this cubozoan species can kill within minutes. From clinical and animal studies, symptoms comprise severe pain, welts, scarring, hypotension, vasospasms, cardiac irregularities and cardiac arrest. At present, there is no cure and opioids are used to manage pain. Antivenom is available but controversy exists over its effectiveness. Experimental and combination therapies performed in vitro and in vivo have shown varied efficacy. These inconsistent results are likely a consequence of the different methods used to extract venom. Recent omics analysis has shed light on the systems of C. fleckeri venom action, including new toxin classes that use pore formation, cell membrane collapse and ion channel modulation. This review covers what is known on C. fleckeri pathomechanisms and highlights current gaps in knowledge. A more complete understanding of the mechanisms of C. fleckeri venom-induced pathology may lead to novel treatments and possibly, the discovery of novel cell pathways, novel drug scaffolds and novel drug targets for human disease.
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Hughes RJA, Angus JA, Winkel KD, Wright CE. A pharmacological investigation of the venom extract of the Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, in cardiac and vascular tissues. Toxicol Lett 2011; 209:11-20. [PMID: 22154831 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 11/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacology of Australian box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, unpurified (crude) nematocyst venom extract (CVE) was investigated in rat isolated cardiac and vascular tissues and in anaesthetised rats. In small mesenteric arteries CVE (0.01-30 μg/ml) caused contractions (EC(50) 1.15±0.19 μg/ml) that were unaffected by prazosin (0.1 μM), bosentan (10 μM), CGRP(8-37) (1 μM) or tetrodotoxin (1 μM). Box jellyfish antivenom (5-92.6 units/ml) caused rightward shifts of the CVE concentration-response curve with no change in the maximum. In the presence of l-NAME (100 μM) the sensitivity and maximum response to CVE were increased, whilst MgSO(4) (6 mM) decreased both parameters. CVE (1-10 μg/ml) caused inhibition of the contractile response to electrical sympathetic nerve stimulation. Left atrial responses to CVE (0.001-30 μg/ml) were bi-phasic, composed of an initial positive inotropy followed by a marked negative inotropy and atrial standstill. CVE (0.3 μg/ml) elicited a marked decrease in right atrial rate followed by atrial standstill at 3 μg/ml. These responses were unaffected by 1 μM of propranolol, atropine or CGRP(8-37). Antivenom (54 and 73 units/ml) caused rightward shifts of the CVE concentration-response curve and prevented atrial standstill in left and right atria. The effects of CVE do not appear to involve autonomic nerves, post-synaptic α(1)- or β(1)-adrenoceptors, or muscarinic, endothelin or CGRP receptors, but may occur through direct effects on the cardiac and vascular muscle. Box jellyfish antivenom was effective in attenuating CVE-induced responses in isolated cardiac and vascular tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J A Hughes
- Cardiovascular Therapeutics Unit, Department of Pharmacology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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Abstract
The seas and oceans around Australia harbour numerous venomous jellyfish. Chironex fleckeri, the box jellyfish, is the most lethal causing rapid cardiorespiratory depression and although its venom has been characterised, its toxins remain to be identified. A moderately effective antivenom exists which is also partially effective against another chirodropid, Chiropsalmus sp. Numerous carybdeids, some unidentified, cause less severe illness, including Carybdea rastoni whose toxins CrTX-A and CrTX-B are large proteins. Carukia barnesi, another small carybdeid is one cause of the 'Irukandji' syndrome which includes delayed pain from severe muscle cramping, vomiting, anxiety, restlessness, sweating and prostration, and occasionally severe hypertension and acute cardiac failure. The syndrome is in part caused by release of catecholamines but the cause of heart failure is undefined. The venom contains a sodium channel modulator. Two species of Physalia are present and although one is potentially lethal, has not caused death in Australian waters. Other significant genera of jellyfish include Tamoya, Pelagia, Cyanea, Aurelia and Chyrosaora.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Tibballs
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
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Bailey PM, Bakker AJ, Seymour JE, Wilce JA. A functional comparison of the venom of three Australian jellyfish—Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsalmus sp., and Carybdea xaymacana—on cytosolic Ca2+, haemolysis and Artemia sp. lethality. Toxicon 2005; 45:233-42. [PMID: 15626372 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2004] [Revised: 10/15/2004] [Accepted: 10/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cnidarian venoms produce a wide spectrum of envenoming syndromes in humans ranging from minor local irritation to death. Here, the effects of Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsalmus sp., and Carybdea xaymacana venoms on ventricular myocyte cytosolic Ca2+, haemolysis and Artemia sp. lethality are compared for the first time. All three venoms caused a large, irreversible elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ in myocytes as measured using the Ca2+ sensitive fluorescent probe Indo-1. The L-type Ca2+ channel antagonist verapamil had no effect on Ca2+ influx whilst La3+, a non-specific channel and pore blocker, inhibited the effect. Haemolytic activity was observed for all venoms, with C. xaymacana venom displaying the greatest activity. These activities are consistent with the presence of a pore-forming toxin existing in the venoms which has been demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy in the case of C. fleckeri. The venom of C. fleckeri was found to be more lethal against Artemia sp. than the venom of the other species, consistent with the order of known human toxicities. This suggests that the observed lytic effects may not underlie the lethal effects of the venom, and raises the question of how such potent activities are dealt with by envenomed humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Bailey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical and Chemical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
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Bailey PM, Little M, Jelinek GA, Wilce JA. Jellyfish envenoming syndromes: unknown toxic mechanisms and unproven therapies. Med J Aust 2003; 178:34-7. [PMID: 12492389 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05040.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2002] [Accepted: 10/24/2002] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Interest in envenoming syndromes caused by Australian jellyfish has been intense since the deaths in early 2002 of two tourists in Queensland, attributed to the Irukandji syndrome. We review current knowledge of these envenoming syndromes, mechanisms of venom action and therapy, focusing on the deadly box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, and the array of jellyfish thought to cause the Irukandji syndrome. Current understanding of jellyfish venom activity is very limited, and many treatments are unproven and based on anecdote.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Bailey
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
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Tibballs J, Williams D, Sutherland SK. The effects of antivenom and verapamil on the haemodynamic actions of Chironex fleckeri (box jellyfish) venom. Anaesth Intensive Care 1998; 26:40-5. [PMID: 9513666 DOI: 10.1177/0310057x9802600105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of antivenom and verapamil against Chironex fleckeri (box jellyfish) venom was investigated in monitored mechanically ventilated piglets. Chironex fleckeri tentacle extract alone, a mixture of tentacle extract with antivenom, and verapamil before tentacle extract were administered intravenously to groups of animals. Tentacle extract caused severe systemic hypotension, cardiac dysrrhythmias, pulmonary hypertension, haemolysis and hyperkalaemia. These effects were prevented by pre-incubation of tentacle extract with antivenom. Verapamil did not prevent any effect of venom, exacerbated cardiovascular collapse and increased mortality. We conclude that antivenom neutralizes the cardiovascular, haemolytic and hyperkalaemic effects of box jellyfish venom. Verapamil does not prevent any of these effects and is contra-indicated for treatment of envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tibballs
- Internsive Care Unit, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria
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Abstract
1. Australia has some of the most venomous fauna in the world. Although humans are not usually perceived as being predators against these animals they are often envenomated, accidentally or otherwise. This has led to the development of antivenoms against some of the potentially lethal venoms. However, further understanding of the mechanism(s) of action of these and other venoms is important, not only for developing new treatment strategies but also in the search for novel research tools. 2. The present review discusses the pharmacology of some of the components found in venoms and outlines the research undertaken on some of Australia's venomous animals, with the exception of snakes. 3. Biogenic amines, peptides and enzymes are common venom components and produce a wide range of effects in envenomated humans. For example, respiratory failure observed after envenomation by the box jellyfish (Chirnex fleckeri) and Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus) is most likely due to potent neurotoxins in the venoms. Stonefish (Synanceja trachynis) and platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) venoms, although not considered lethal, cause severe pain. However, the components responsible for these effects have not been isolated. Venom components, as yet unidentified, may be responsible for the cutaneous necrotic lesions that have been reported after some spider bites (e.g. Lampona cylindrata). Other venoms, such as those of the jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) and bull ant (M. pyriformis), may produce only mild skin irritation to the majority of humans but a severe anaphylactic response in sensitized victims. 4. While there has been a renewed interest in toxinology, further research is required to fully elucidate the pharmacological action of many of these venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Abstract
Two myotoxins (T1 and T2) with mol. wts of approximately 600,000 and 150,000, respectively, and a haemolysin (T3) with a mol. wt of approximately 70,000 were isolated from the crude nematocyst venom of C. fleckeri by the use of Sephadex G-200 chromatography. A neurotoxic fraction (T4) and a haemolytic fraction (T5) containing proteins with apparent mol. wts of approximately 150,000 and 70,000, respectively, were also isolated by Sephadex chromatography from crude extracts of tentacular material from which nematocysts had been removed. The three nematocyst toxins and the two toxic fractions from tentacle extracts were lethal to mice on i.v. injection. After SDS-PAGE the myotoxins T1 and T2 yielded similar major bands corresponding with mol. wts different from those yielded by T3 and the toxic tentacle fractions. T1 and T2 appeared to be comprised of aggregations of subunits with mol. wts of approximately 18,000. On HPLC, crude nematocyst venom and the nematocyst toxins T1 and T2 lost their myotoxic properties. The need for thorough removal of extraneous tentacular material from isolated nematocysts, the need for effective rupture of nematocysts, the need to counter the lability of the nematocyst venom and the need to use myotoxicity as a criterion of venom activity if the active components of the venom are to be purified and characterized are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Endean
- Department of Zoology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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Comis A, Hartwick RF, Howden ME. Stabilization of lethal and hemolytic activities of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) venom. Toxicon 1989; 27:439-47. [PMID: 2567076 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(89)90206-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The stability of both the lethal and hemolytic activities of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) tentacle extract was assessed after various extraction procedures. Both activities were higher when no buffers or water were used during the initial extraction. Also, when the extract was first filtered through a Sep-pak C18 cartridge, the residual lethal titre, after incubation for 24 hr at room temperature, was increased 16-fold and hemolysis was increased 2.6-fold. Evidence for proteolytic activity in the extract was also obtained and monitored by size exclusion HPLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Comis
- Division of Biological and Health Sciences, Deakin University, VIC, Australia
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Fenner PJ, Williamson JA, Burnett JW, Colquhoun DM, Godfrey S, Gunawardane K, Murtha W. The "Irukandji syndrome" and acute pulmonary oedema. Med J Aust 1988; 149:150-6. [PMID: 2899834 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1988.tb120544.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P J Fenner
- Ambrose Medical Group, North Mackay, Qld
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Azuma H, Ishikawa M, Nakajima T, Satoh A, Sekizaki S. Calcium-dependent contractile response of arterial smooth muscle to a jellyfish toxin (pCrTX: Carybdea rastonii). Br J Pharmacol 1986; 88:549-59. [PMID: 2874856 PMCID: PMC1916972 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1986.tb10235.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present experiments was to investigate the pharmacological mechanisms of the vasoconstriction caused by the toxin (pCrTX) which had been partially purified from the tentacles of the jellyfish Carybdea rastonii ('Andonkurage'). pCrTX (0.1 to 10 micrograms ml-1) produced a tonic contraction of rabbit aortic strips, which was nearly abolished in Ca2+-free medium and was significantly reduced by verapamil or diltiazem. pCrTX stimulated 45Ca2+-influx and this effect was markedly attenuated by verapamil. pCrTX-induced vasoconstriction was significantly attenuated by phentolamine, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and in low Na+-medium, but not by bretylium, guanethidine, reserpinization or tetrodotoxin (TTX). pCrTX continuously and significantly increased the 3H-efflux from [3H]-noradrenaline preloaded aortic strips and this effect was completely inhibited by pretreatment with 6-OHDA and in Ca2+-free medium, but not by phentolamine, bretylium, guanethidine or TTX. A single exposure to pCrTX for 30 min greatly reduced the contractile responses to tyramine, nicotine and transmural electrical stimulation, but not those to noradrenaline or KC1. In addition, incorporation of [3H]-noradrenaline was reduced. Pretreatments with chlorphenylamine or indomethacin failed to modify the contractile response to pCrTX. These results suggest that the pCrTX-induced vasoconstriction is caused by a presynaptic action, releasing noradrenaline from the intramural adrenergic nerve terminals, and by a postsynaptic action, which consists at least in part of stimulation of the transmembrane calcium influx. Both pre- and postsynaptic actions depend on the external calcium concentration. The data further suggest that pCrTX damages the noradrenaline uptake and/or storage mechanisms without damaging postsynaptic contractile systems.
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Williamson JA, Le Ray LE, Wohlfahrt M, Fenner PJ. Acute management of serious envenomation by box-jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri). Med J Aust 1984; 141:851-3. [PMID: 6150421 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1984.tb132969.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Two cases of serious envenomation by the northern Australian box-jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) are reported. The first-aid measures and the subsequent management and follow-up of patients are discussed. In addition to its known life-saving effects, the early administration of the specific antivenom appears to be the best treatment for the savage pain of the sting, and may also result in a reduction of subsequent skin scarring.
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SOME EFFECTS OF PURIFIED COMPONENTS OF JELLYFISH TOXIN ON ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE ACTIVITIES. Toxins (Basel) 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-022640-8.50054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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LARSEN JAMESB, PRICE WILLIAMJ. SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FRACTIONATED JELLYFISH TOXIN. Toxins (Basel) 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-022640-8.50053-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Walker MJ. The cardiac actions of a toxin-containing material from the jellyfish, Cyanea capillata. Toxicon 1977; 15:15-27. [PMID: 14423 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(77)90065-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Walker MJ. Pharmacological and biochemical properties of a toxin containing material from the jellyfish, Cyanea capillata. Toxicon 1977; 15:3-14. [PMID: 14424 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(77)90064-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Walker MJ, Martinez TT, Godin DV. Investigations into the cardiotoxicity of a toxin from the nematocysts of the jellyfish, Cyanea capillata. Toxicon 1977; 15:339-46. [PMID: 18816 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(77)90016-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Crone HD. Chemical modification of the haemolytic activity of extracts from the box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri (cnidaria). Toxicon 1976; 14:97-107. [PMID: 5791 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(76)90099-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Toom PM, Phillips TD. Effects of purified components of jellyfish toxin (Stomolophus meleagris) on active sodium transport. Toxicon 1975; 13:261-71. [PMID: 241135 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(75)90132-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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