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K N, Bakkannavar SM, Bhat VR, Sirur FM. A review on snake venom extracellular vesicles: Past to present. Toxicon 2024; 244:107772. [PMID: 38768828 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Around 95% of snake venom is protein. Along with the soluble proteins, snake venom also contains proteins encapsulated in vesicles known as Snake Venom Extracellular Vesicles (SVEV). SVEVs are nano-sized membrane-bound vesicles released from the snake venom gland cells. The available published research works on SVEVs are minimal. Extracellular vesicles in the Snake Venom gland were initially discovered during the histopathological analysis of the Crotalus durissus terrificus snakes' venom gland. Later, various techniques were employed to isolate and characterize the SVEVs. The cargo of SVEV consists of a variety of proteins like Phospholipase A-2, C-type Lectins, L-Amino Acid Oxidase, Cysteine-Rich Secretory Proteins, Serine Proteinases, Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV, Aminopeptidase-A, Ecto-5'-nucleotidases, Disintegrins. Proteomic data revealed the presence of some exclusive proteins in the SVEVs, and the other proteins are in varying concentrations in the SVEVs compared to their whole Venom. Interaction of SVEVs with mammalian cell lines showed the disruption of primary physiological functions leads to host immune modulation, and long-term effects of envenoming. Snakebite victim's blood showed variations in the specific Extracellular vesicle concentration. It has been hypothesized that SVEVs are responsible for long-term toxicity. The current review focuses on the various techniques adopted to isolate and characterize SVEVs and discusses the exclusiveness and variations of SVEV proteins and their role in snakebites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagendra K
- Research Scholar, Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, India.
| | - Shankar M Bakkannavar
- Associate Professor, Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, India.
| | - Vinutha R Bhat
- Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, India.
| | - Freston Marc Sirur
- Associate Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, India.
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Perry BW, Schield DR, Westfall AK, Mackessy SP, Castoe TA. Physiological demands and signaling associated with snake venom production and storage illustrated by transcriptional analyses of venom glands. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18083. [PMID: 33093509 PMCID: PMC7582160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75048-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the extensive body of research on snake venom, many facets of snake venom systems, such as the physiology and regulation of the venom gland itself, remain virtually unstudied. Here, we use time series gene expression analyses of the rattlesnake venom gland in comparison with several non-venom tissues to characterize physiological and cellular processes associated with venom production and to highlight key distinctions of venom gland cellular and physiological function. We find consistent evidence for activation of stress response pathways in the venom gland, suggesting that mitigation of cellular stress is a crucial component of venom production. Additionally, we demonstrate evidence for an unappreciated degree of cellular and secretory activity in the steady state venom gland relative to other secretory tissues and identify vacuolar ATPases as the likely mechanisms driving acidification of the venom gland lumen during venom production and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Dr., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Dr., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Aundrea K Westfall
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Dr., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Dr., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA.
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Valente RH, Luna MS, de Oliveira UC, Nishiyama-Junior MY, Junqueira-de-Azevedo IDL, Portes-Junior JA, Clissa PB, Viana LG, Sanches L, Moura-da-Silva AM, Perales J, Yamanouye N. Bothrops jararaca accessory venom gland is an ancillary source of toxins to the snake. J Proteomics 2018; 177:137-147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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4
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Valente RH, Sakai F, Portes-Junior JA, Viana LG, Carneiro SM, Perales J, Yamanouye N. The Primary Duct of Bothrops jararaca Glandular Apparatus Secretes Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E121. [PMID: 29533989 PMCID: PMC5869409 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite numerous studies concerning morphology and venom production and secretion in the main venom gland (and some data on the accessory gland) of the venom glandular apparatus of Viperidae snakes, the primary duct has been overlooked. We characterized the primary duct of the Bothrops jararaca snake by morphological analysis, immunohistochemistry and proteomics. The duct has a pseudostratified epithelium with secretory columnar cells with vesicles of various electrondensities, as well as mitochondria-rich, dark, basal, and horizontal cells. Morphological analysis, at different periods after venom extraction, showed that the primary duct has a long cycle of synthesis and secretion, as do the main venom and accessory glands; however, the duct has a mixed mode venom storage, both in the lumen and in secretory vesicles. Mouse anti-B. jararaca venom serum strongly stained the primary duct's epithelium. Subsequent proteomic analysis revealed the synthesis of venom toxins-mainly C-type lectin/C-type lectin-like proteins. We propose that the primary duct's toxin synthesis products complement the final venom bolus. Finally, we hypothesize that the primary duct and the accessory gland (components of the venom glandular apparatus) are part of the evolutionary path from a salivary gland towards the main venom gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Hemmi Valente
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro RJ 21040-900, Brazil.
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Toxinas (INCTTox), CNPq, Brasília DF 71605-170, Brazil.
| | - Fernanda Sakai
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo SP 05503-900, Brazil.
| | | | - Luciana Godoy Viana
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo SP 05503-900, Brazil.
| | | | - Jonas Perales
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro RJ 21040-900, Brazil.
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Toxinas (INCTTox), CNPq, Brasília DF 71605-170, Brazil.
| | - Norma Yamanouye
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo SP 05503-900, Brazil.
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Toxinas (INCTTox), CNPq, Brasília DF 71605-170, Brazil.
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5
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Viana LG, Valente RH, Heluany CS, Souza-Imberg A, Luna MS, Perales J, Yamanouye N. Bothrops jararaca venom gland secretory cells in culture: Effects of noradrenaline on toxin production and secretion. Toxicon 2017; 133:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Souza-Imberg A, Carneiro SM, Giannotti KC, Sant'Anna SS, Yamanouye N. Origin and characterization of small membranous vesicles present in the venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus. Toxicon 2017; 136:27-33. [PMID: 28668562 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Small membranous vesicles are small closed fragments of membrane. They are released from multivesicular bodies (exosomes) or shed from the surface membrane (microvesicles). They contains various bioactive molecules and their molecular composition varies depending on their cellular origin. Small membranous vesicles have been identified in snake venoms, but the origin of these small membranous vesicles in the venom is controversial. The aim of this study was to verify the origin of the small membranous vesicles in venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus by morphological analyses using electron microscopy. In addition, the protein composition of the vesicles was analyzed by using a proteome approach. The small membranous vesicles present in the venom were microvesicles, since they originated from microvilli on the apical membrane of secretory cells. They contained cytoplasmic proteins, and proteins from the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Golgi membrane. The release of microvesicles may be a mechanism to control the size of the cell membrane of the secretory cells after intense exocytosis. Microvesicle components that may have a role in envenoming include ecto-5'-nucleotidase, a cell membrane protein that releases adenosine, and aminopeptidase N, a cell membrane protein that may modulate the action of many peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andréia Souza-Imberg
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Sylvia Mendes Carneiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Karina Cristina Giannotti
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Sávio Stefanini Sant'Anna
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Norma Yamanouye
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Boldrini-França J, Cologna CT, Pucca MB, Bordon KDCF, Amorim FG, Anjolette FAP, Cordeiro FA, Wiezel GA, Cerni FA, Pinheiro-Junior EL, Shibao PYT, Ferreira IG, de Oliveira IS, Cardoso IA, Arantes EC. Minor snake venom proteins: Structure, function and potential applications. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:824-838. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Evolution of the Snake Venom Delivery System. EVOLUTION OF VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6458-3_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Jared SGS, Jared C, Egami MI, Mailho-Fontana PL, Rodrigues MT, Antoniazzi MM. Functional assessment of toad parotoid macroglands: a study based on poison replacement after mechanical compression. Toxicon 2014; 87:92-103. [PMID: 24911375 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Revised: 05/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Toads have a pair of parotoid macroglands behind the eyes that secrete poison used in passive defence against predators. These macroglands are composed of juxtaposed alveoli, each one bearing a syncytial gland, all connected to the exterior by ducts. When the parotoids are bitten, the poison is expelled on the predator oral mucosa in the form of jets, causing several pharmacological actions. After poison release, the empty secretory syncytia immediately collapse in the interior of their respective alveoli and gradually start refilling. After parotoid manual compression, simulating a predator's bite, we studied, by means of morphological methods, the replacement of the poison inside the alveoli. The results showed that after compression, a considerable number of alveoli remained intact. In the alveoli that were effectively affected the recovery occurs in different levels, from total to punctual and often restrict to some areas of the syncytia. The severely affected alveoli seem not recover their original functional state. The fact that only a part of the parotoid alveoli is compressed during an attack seems to be crucial for toad survival, since the amphibian, after being bitten by a predator, do not lose all its poison stock, remaining protected in case of new attacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone G S Jared
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carlos Jared
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mizue I Egami
- Departamento de Biologia Estrutural e Funcional, EPM, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Miguel T Rodrigues
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
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Activation of Bothrops jararaca snake venom gland and venom production: A proteomic approach. J Proteomics 2013; 94:460-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Viperid venom glands with defective venom production. Morphological study. Toxicon 2013; 70:32-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Sakai F, Carneiro SM, Yamanouye N. Morphological study of accessory gland of Bothrops jararaca and its secretory cycle. Toxicon 2012; 59:393-401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 10/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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13
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Cardoso KC, Da Silva MJ, Costa GGL, Torres TT, Del Bem LEV, Vidal RO, Menossi M, Hyslop S. A transcriptomic analysis of gene expression in the venom gland of the snake Bothrops alternatus (urutu). BMC Genomics 2010; 11:605. [PMID: 20977763 PMCID: PMC3017861 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 10/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The genus Bothrops is widespread throughout Central and South America and is the principal cause of snakebite in these regions. Transcriptomic and proteomic studies have examined the venom composition of several species in this genus, but many others remain to be studied. In this work, we used a transcriptomic approach to examine the venom gland genes of Bothrops alternatus, a clinically important species found in southeastern and southern Brazil, Uruguay, northern Argentina and eastern Paraguay. Results A cDNA library of 5,350 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) was produced and assembled into 838 contigs and 4512 singletons. BLAST searches of relevant databases showed 30% hits and 70% no-hits, with toxin-related transcripts accounting for 23% and 78% of the total transcripts and hits, respectively. Gene ontology analysis identified non-toxin genes related to general metabolism, transcription and translation, processing and sorting, (polypeptide) degradation, structural functions and cell regulation. The major groups of toxin transcripts identified were metalloproteinases (81%), bradykinin-potentiating peptides/C-type natriuretic peptides (8.8%), phospholipases A2 (5.6%), serine proteinases (1.9%) and C-type lectins (1.5%). Metalloproteinases were almost exclusively type PIII proteins, with few type PII and no type PI proteins. Phospholipases A2 were essentially acidic; no basic PLA2 were detected. Minor toxin transcripts were related to L-amino acid oxidase, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, dipeptidylpeptidase IV, hyaluronidase, three-finger toxins and ohanin. Two non-toxic proteins, thioredoxin and double-specificity phosphatase Dusp6, showed high sequence identity to similar proteins from other snakes. In addition to the above features, single-nucleotide polymorphisms, microsatellites, transposable elements and inverted repeats that could contribute to toxin diversity were observed. Conclusions Bothrops alternatus venom gland contains the major toxin classes described for other Bothrops venoms based on trancriptomic and proteomic studies. The predominance of type PIII metalloproteinases agrees with the well-known hemorrhagic activity of this venom, whereas the lower content of serine proteases and C-type lectins could contribute to less marked coagulopathy following envenoming by this species. The lack of basic PLA2 agrees with the lower myotoxicity of this venom compared to other Bothrops species with these toxins. Together, these results contribute to our understanding of the physiopathology of envenoming by this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiara C Cardoso
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, CP 6111, 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Luna MSA, Hortencio TMA, Ferreira ZS, Yamanouye N. Sympathetic outflow activates the venom gland of the snakeBothrops jararacaby regulating the activation of transcription factors and the synthesis of venom gland proteins. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:1535-43. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.030197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYThe venom gland of viperid snakes has a central lumen where the venom produced by secretory cells is stored. When the venom is lost from the gland,the secretory cells are activated and new venom is produced. The production of new venom is triggered by the action of noradrenaline on bothα 1- and β-adrenoceptors in the venom gland. In this study, we show that venom removal leads to the activation of transcription factors NFκB and AP-1 in the venom gland. In dispersed secretory cells,noradrenaline activated both NFκB and AP-1. Activation of NFκB and AP-1 depended on phospholipase C and protein kinase A. Activation of NFκB also depended on protein kinase C. Isoprenaline activated both NFκB and AP-1, and phenylephrine activated NFκB and later AP-1. We also show that the protein composition of the venom gland changes during the venom production cycle. Striking changes occurred 4 and 7 days after venom removal in female and male snakes, respectively. Reserpine blocks this change,and the administration of α1- and β-adrenoceptor agonists to reserpine-treated snakes largely restores the protein composition of the venom gland. However, the protein composition of the venom from reserpinized snakes treated with α1- or β-adrenoceptor agonists appears normal, judging from SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. A sexual dimorphism in activating transcription factors and activating venom gland was observed. Our data suggest that the release of noradrenaline after biting is necessary to activate the venom gland by regulating the activation of transcription factors and consequently regulating the synthesis of proteins in the venom gland for venom production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milene S. A. Luna
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil 1500,05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thiago M. A. Hortencio
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil 1500,05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zulma S. Ferreira
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, travessa 14, 05508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Norma Yamanouye
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil 1500,05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil
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Kerchove CM, Luna MSA, Zablith MB, Lazari MFM, Smaili SS, Yamanouye N. Alpha1-adrenoceptors trigger the snake venom production cycle in secretory cells by activating phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate hydrolysis and ERK signaling pathway. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2008; 150:431-7. [PMID: 18555716 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.04.607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2008] [Revised: 04/30/2008] [Accepted: 04/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Loss of venom from the venom gland after biting or manual extraction leads to morphological changes in venom secreting cells and the start of a cycle of production of new venom. We have previously shown that stimulation of both alpha- and beta-adrenoceptors in the secretory cells of the venom gland is essential for the onset of the venom production cycle in Bothrops jararaca. We investigated the signaling pathway by which the alpha-adrenoceptor initiates the venom production cycle. Our results show that the alpha(1)-adrenoceptor subtype is present in venom gland of the snake. In quiescent cells, stimulation of alpha(1)-adrenoceptor with phenylephrine increased the total inositol phosphate concentration, and this effect was blocked by the phospholipase C inhibitor U73122. Phenylephrine mobilized Ca(2+) from thapsigargin-sensitive stores and increased protein kinase C activity. In addition, alpha(1)-adrenoceptor stimulation increased the activity of ERK 1/2, partially via protein kinase C. Using RT-PCR approach we obtained a partial sequence of a snake alpha(1)-adrenoceptor (260 bp) with higher identity with alpha(1D) and alpha(1B)-adrenoceptors from different species. These results suggest that alpha(1)-adrenoceptors in the venom secreting cells are probably coupled to a G(q) protein and trigger the venom production cycle by activating the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and ERK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine M Kerchove
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Carneiro SM, Fernandes W, Sant'Anna SS, Yamanouye N. Microvesicles in the venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus (Serpentes, Viperidae). Toxicon 2007; 49:106-10. [PMID: 17084429 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2005] [Revised: 03/17/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Microvesicles with electron-dense content are consistently observed by transmission electron microscopy on the luminal face of secretory cells of venom glands of viperid snakes. In this work, we evaluated their presence in Crotalus durissus terrificus venom glands and also in freshly collected venom. Microvesicles were found in the venom glands mainly in regions of exocytosis. They ranged from 40 to 80 nm in diameter. Freeze-fracture replicas of the glands revealed particles on the cytoplasmic leaflet (P-face) of these vesicles, suggesting that they carry transmembrane proteins. Vesicles separated by ultracentrifugation from cell-free venom were similar in size and structure to the microvesicles observed in the glands. A fine fuzzy coat surrounded each microvesicle. The function of these venom vesicles is still unknown, but they may contribute to inactivation of stored venom components, or their activation after the venom is released.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Mendes Carneiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo, SP 05503-900, Brasil.
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18
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Carneiro SM, Zablith MB, Kerchove CM, Moura-da-Silva AM, Quissell DO, Markus RP, Yamanouye N. Venom production in long-term primary culture of secretory cells of the Bothrops jararaca venom gland. Toxicon 2006; 47:87-94. [PMID: 16310237 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2005] [Revised: 10/06/2005] [Accepted: 10/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
There is an increasing interest of obtaining venom by other ways than from extracting it from snakes captured in the wild. A readily available source of this venom will be useful for all pharmacological and biotechnological studies, as well as providing an improved avenue for treatments of snakebites. Here, we show that secretory cells of venom gland can be a good in vitro apparatus to produce venom. We have maintained and morphologically characterized the secretory cells of the Bothrops jararaca venom gland cultured up to 21 days. The isolated cells assemble into acini that growth in size up to 21st day, instead of adhering to the substrate. Bothropasin, a venom metalloprotease, was localized in secretory vesicles by immunoelectron microscopy and venom was also detected in culture medium in a concentration as high as 63 microg/ml. These data show that the acini formed in culture are functionally viable; they can produce and secrete venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Carneiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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19
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Kerchove CM, Carneiro SM, Markus RP, Yamanouye N. Stimulation of the α-adrenoceptor triggers the venom production cycle in the venom gland of Bothrops jararaca. J Exp Biol 2004; 207:411-6. [PMID: 14691088 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.00778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
The noradrenergic innervation of Bothrops jararaca venom gland is thought to be important in the production and secretion of venom. We investigated the characteristics of the α-adrenoceptor in the venom gland and its role in venom production. This receptor had relatively low sensitivity to noradrenaline (pD2=4.77±0.09, N=7)and to phenylephrine (pD2=3.77±0.06, N=11). The receptor became desensitized just after venom extraction (pD2 to phenylephrine fell to 3.27±0.02, N=6) and the sensitivity remained low for at least 15 days, returning to normal 30 days after venom extraction, by which time the snake was ready for a new cycle of venom production. Incubation of secretory cells with noradrenaline(10–4 mol l–1 for 5 min) reducedα-adrenoceptor sensitivity to the level seen after venom extraction. Blockade of catecholamine production with reserpine abolished the enlargement of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the activation of the Golgi apparatus that are normally seen after venom extraction, and the venom production was restored by a single subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of phenylephrine (100 mg kg–1) immediately after venom extraction. Our data suggest that stimulation of the α-adrenoceptor during or shortly after biting is essential for the onset of the venom production cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine M Kerchove
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brazil 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, Brazil
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Carneiro SM, Assakura MT, Barrence FAC, Cardoso SRT, de Martins Camargo AC, Sesso A. Immunolocalization of venom metalloproteases in venom glands of adult and of newborn snakes of Bothrops jararaca. Tissue Cell 2002; 34:381-9. [PMID: 12441090 DOI: 10.1016/s004081660200068x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Using immunoelectronmicroscopy we analyzed qualitative and quantitatively the intracellular distribution of bothropasin, hemorrhagic factor 2 (HF2) and hemorrhagic factor 3 (HF3) in the venom secretory cells from adult snakes in the active (7 days after venom extraction) and in the resting (without venom extraction for 40 days) stages of protein synthesis. Glands from the newborn Bothrops jararaca were also studied. The results lead to the conclusion that all the secretory cells and the secretory pathway in the cells are qualitatively alike in regard to their content of the three metalloproteases. Secretory cells from the resting glands, unlike the active ones and the newborn glands, did not present immunolabeling in the narrow intracisternal spaces of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). The label intensity for bothropasin was greater than that for the other proteins in the adults. HF3 and HF2 labeling densities in the newborn were higher than in the adults and HF3 labeling was not different from that of bothropasin. Co-localization of the three metalloproteases was detected in the RER cisternae of the active gland secretory cells, implying that mixing of the proteases before co-packaging into secretory vesicles occurs at the beginning of protein synthesis in the RER cisternae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Mendes Carneiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil 1500, SP 05503-900, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Carneiro SM, Fernandes W, Della Casa MS, Sesso A. Cytochemical analysis of acid phosphatase activity in the venom secretory cells of Bothrops jararaca. Tissue Cell 2001; 33:311-7. [PMID: 11521945 DOI: 10.1054/tice.2000.0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A study of the histochemical reaction for acid phosphatase (AcPase) in venom gland secretory cells from Bothrops jararaca was done to investigate the distribution of lysosomes and related structures in stages of high- and low-protein synthesis. From this analysis, it was expected to gain insight into the cellular pathway by which AcPase is secreted into the venom. Two subtypes of AcPase reactivities were detected in the venom gland secretory cells: one was found in lysosomes and related structures and in some trans-Golgi network (TGN) elements and reacts with beta-glycerophosphate (betaGP) as substrate; the other was found in secretory vesicles, apical plasmalemma, lysosomes and related structures, and in some TGN elements, and reacts with cytidine monophosphate (CMP). The results are compatible with the possibility that there is a secretory via for AcPase in the venom gland of B. jararaca and that the elements composing this pathway are noted only when CMP is used as substrate. Large autophagosomes reactive to both betaGP and to CMP were commonly observed in the basal region of the secretory cells, and they were more abundant in the glands during the stage of low activity of protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Carneiro
- Instituto Butantan Laboratório de Biologia Celular, São Paulo-SP, Brasil.
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