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BOIKO V, RIABOV S, KOBRINA L, DMITRIEVA T. REVIEW OF EVALUATION METHODS FOR BIODEGRADABILITY OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS. Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.15407/polymerj.44.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Development and further use of biodegradable polymeric materials requires prior assessment the degree of their biodegradation. There are a large number of methods developed taking into account the specifics of the destruction of polymeric materials. The purpose of this review is to systematize scientific and technical information regarding methods for assessing the biodegradation of polymeric materials. Laboratory methods of researches, including the following: influence of abiotic factors (temperature, moisture, UV irradiation), impact of microorganisms (fungi, bacteria, yeast), respiratory methods (Sturm, Zahn-Wellness, etc.), conditions of composting, enzyme analysis methods, ecotoxicity tests are given. Test methods in both aqueous and solid media are also presented. The parameters of biodegradability, which determine the degree of destruction (mass, strain strength, molecular weight distribution, temperature characteristics, macro-and microstructure of samples, etc.) or the composition and properties of the biological system in which biodegradation takes place (acidity, respiratory activity, chemical and microbiological composition of soil or other biological environment, etc.) are considered as well. Advantages of laboratory methods for studying the biodegradation of polymeric materials could be realized in the given directions: varying of the experimental conditions (temperature, humidity, UV and IR radiation, the presence of aggressive media, etc.), biochemical compositions of the environment; study of the ability of individual strains of microorganisms to dispose of polymer composites and targeted selection of the most active microbial associations (in particular, for the manufacture of special biocomposts); utilize of simple and fast methodical approaches and modern devices for evaluation experiments. However, laboratory methods do not always allow modeling a set of endogenous and exogenous factors that define the process of biodegradation in the natural environment. Therefore, this review also considers methods for assessing biodegradation in the environment. So, the essence of the test regarding the samples’ burial in the ground is given. International standards governing methods for assessing the biodegradability of organic substances and polymeric materials are summarized. Applying different test methods, one can evaluate the whole process of biodegradation of polymeric materials, consisting of several stages, which occur regardless the type of microorganisms and accompanying abiotic factors, and can be represented as follows: adhesion → colonization → biodeterioration → biofragmentation → assimilation → mineralization. Thus, the adhesion and colonization of microorganisms can be estimated by visual, bioindicator and spectral methods. Abiotic degradation and biodeterioration are associated with physical tests (e.g., thermal and physico-mechanical). Biofragmentation is detected by identifying fragments of lower molecular weight (i.e. by chromatographic methods). In turn, assimilation is assessed by the amount of metabolites produced using, for example, respirometric methods or involving analysis of microbial biomass (e.g., macroscopic and microscopic observations). The most productive should be considered a comprehensive approach to the study of biodegradation of polymers. To determine the reliable kinetic parameters and link the mechanism of this process, it is necessary to carry out a comparative analysis of the results of physical, chemical, microbiological experiments, which are carried out in both laboratory and natural conditions.
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Castro-Aguirre E, Auras R, Selke S, Rubino M, Marsh T. Insights on the aerobic biodegradation of polymers by analysis of evolved carbon dioxide in simulated composting conditions. Polym Degrad Stab 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Ali MI, Ahmed S, Robson G, Javed I, Ali N, Atiq N, Hameed A. Isolation and molecular characterization of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic degrading fungal isolates. J Basic Microbiol 2013; 54:18-27. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201200496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Safia Ahmed
- Department of Microbiology; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Geoff Robson
- Faculty of Life Sciences; University of Manchester; Manchester UK
| | - Imran Javed
- Department of Microbiology; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Naeem Ali
- Department of Microbiology; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Naima Atiq
- Department of Microbiology; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Abdul Hameed
- Department of Microbiology; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
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Affiliation(s)
- B. De Wilde
- Organic Waste Systems (OWS) nv, Dok Noord 5, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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To compost or not to compost: Carbon and energy footprints of biodegradable materials’ waste treatment. Polym Degrad Stab 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Baptista M, Antunes F, Gonçalves MS, Morvan B, Silveira A. Composting kinetics in full-scale mechanical-biological treatment plants. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2010; 30:1908-1921. [PMID: 20493677 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2010.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Revised: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 04/24/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This study focuses on the investigation of the kinetics of municipal solid waste composting in three full-scale mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) plants. The aims were to test a kinetic model based on volatile solids (VS) content change for describing the composting process in MBT plants, and to identify the model parameters that affected the estimation of the reaction rate constant most. To achieve this, VS content and several environmental conditions, namely temperature, moisture content, oxygen concentration and total bulk density were monitored throughout the composting process. Experimental data was fitted with a first-order kinetic model, and a rate constant (k) characteristic of composting under optimum environmental conditions was obtained. The kinetic model satisfactorily described the experimental data for the three MBT plants. k values ranged from 0.043+/-0.002 d(-1) to 0.082+/-0.011 d(-1). Sensitivity analysis showed that the model parameters that most affected the estimation of k were the initial biodegradable volatile solids content, the maximum temperature for biodegradation and the optimum moisture content. In conclusion, we show for the first time that full-scale MBT plants can be successfully modelled with a composting kinetic model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Baptista
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal.
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Environmental biodegradation of synthetic polymers I. Test methodologies and procedures. Trends Analyt Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2009.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Alvarez JVL, Larrucea MA, Bermúdez PA, Chicote BL. Biodegradation of paper waste under controlled composting conditions. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2009; 29:1514-1519. [PMID: 19138509 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2008.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2008] [Revised: 10/10/2008] [Accepted: 11/21/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The presence of paper in municipal solid waste (MSW) interferes with the efficiency of composting plants. The compost feedstock to these plants is between 12% and 27% paper on a dry weight basis, with an initial C:N ratio ranging from 32:1 to 57:1. Tests of the last aerobic biodegradability (LAB) of the type of paper present in paper and cardboard packaging were carried out, following UNE-EN 14046 standards. The results obtained, measured through the quantity of CO(2) generated over 45 days, compared with the maximum that could be produced (ThCO(2)), showed that the presence of paper retards, to a great degree, the biodegradation of organic material in general. Specifically, the presence of papers with a degradation D (%) >60% at 45 days (white (W) and recycled paper (R)) could be allowed, but always in proportions that did not exceed 27% in dry weight. These results can be achieved with an industrial level process, pre-treated by trituration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V López Alvarez
- Dept. of Forestry Engineering, E.T.S.I. De Montes (Superior Technical Forestry Engineering School), Technologic University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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Shah AA, Hasan F, Hameed A, Ahmed S. A novel poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)-degrading Streptoverticillium kashmirense AF1 isolated from soil and purification of PHB-depolymerase. ACTA BIOLOGICA HUNGARICA 2008; 59:489-99. [PMID: 19133504 DOI: 10.1556/abiol.59.2008.4.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A new bacterial strain, capable of degrading poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) was isolated from soil. This organism, identified as Streptoverticillium kashmirense AF1, secreted PHB depolymerases both on solid as well as in liquid mineral salt medium containing poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) as sole carbon source. The optimum production of PHB depolymerase was observed at pH 8 and 7, at 45 degrees C, 1% substrate concentration and in the presence of lactose as an additional carbon source. The extracellular PHB depolymerase was purified by gel permeation chromatography using Sephadex G-75. The Streptoverticillium kashmirense AF1 produced two types of PHB depolymerases having molecular weights of about 37 and 45 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. The difference in dry cell mass and amount of CO2 evolved in the test and control calculated gravimetrically through Sturm test indicated the degradative capabilities of Streptoverticillium kashmirense AF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Shah
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
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Mohee R, Unmar GD, Mudhoo A, Khadoo P. Biodegradability of biodegradable/degradable plastic materials under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2008; 28:1624-9. [PMID: 17826972 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2007.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2007] [Revised: 06/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/19/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
A study was conducted on two types of plastic materials, Mater-Bi Novamont (MB) and Environmental Product Inc. (EPI), to assess their biodegradability under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. For aerobic conditions, organic fractions of municipal solid wastes were composted. For the anaerobic process, anaerobic inoculum from a wastewater treatment plant was used. Cellulose filter papers (CFP) were used as a positive control for both mediums. The composting process was monitored in terms of temperature, moisture and volatile solids and the biodegradation of the samples were monitored in terms of mass loss. Monitoring results showed a biodegradation of 27.1% on a dry basis for MB plastic within a period of 72 days of composting. Biodegradability under an anaerobic environment was monitored in terms of biogas production. A cumulative methane gas production of 245 ml was obtained for MB, which showed good degradation as compared to CFP (246.8 ml). However, EPI plastic showed a cumulative methane value of 7.6 ml for a period of 32 days, which was close to the blank (4.0 ml). The EPI plastic did not biodegrade under either condition. The cumulative carbon dioxide evolution after 32 days was as follows: CFP 4.406 cm3, MB 2.198 cm3 and EPI 1.328 cm3. The cumulative level of CO2 varying with time fitted sigmoid type curves with R2 values of 0.996, 0.996 and 0.995 for CFP, MB and EPI, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mohee
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius.
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Isolation and characterisation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) degrading actinomycetes and purification of PHBV depolymerase from newly isolatedStreptoverticillium kashmirense AF1. ANN MICROBIOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03175359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Rodriguez C, Hiligsmann S, Ongena M, Charlier R, Thonart P. Development of an enzymatic assay for the determination of cellulose bioavailability in municipal solid waste. Biodegradation 2005; 16:415-22. [PMID: 15865155 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-004-3575-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
As there is a constant need to assess the biodegradation potential of refuse disposed of in landfills, we have developed a method to evaluate the biodegradability of cellulosic compounds (cellulose and hemicellulose) in municipal solid waste. This test is based on the quantification of monosaccharides released after the hydrolysis of solid waste samples with an optimised enzyme preparation containing commercially available cellulases and hemicellulases. We show that the amounts of monosaccharides could be related to the biodegradability of the cellulosic material contained in the samples. This enzymatic cellulose degradation test was assayed on 37 samples originating from three Belgian landfills and collected at different depths. As results correlated well with those obtained with a classical biochemical methane potential assay, this new and rapid test is sufficiently reliable to evaluate cellulose bioavailability in waste samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rodriguez
- Walloon Center of Industrial Biology, Unit of Microbial Technology, University of Liège, Bd. du Rectorat, B40, B-4000 Sart-Tilman, Belgium.
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Zhao JH, Wang XQ, Zeng J, Yang G, Shi FH, Yan Q. Biodegradation of poly(butylene succinate) in compost. J Appl Polym Sci 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/app.22009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Száraz L, Kánai I, Beczner J. A complex way of assessing biodegradability of polymer films - a practical approach. ACTA ALIMENTARIA 2003. [DOI: 10.1556/aalim.32.2003.3.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Flieger M, Kantorová M, Prell A, Rezanka T, Votruba J. Biodegradable plastics from renewable sources. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2003; 48:27-44. [PMID: 12744074 DOI: 10.1007/bf02931273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Plastic waste disposal is a huge ecotechnological problem and one of the approaches to solving this problem is the development of biodegradable plastics. This review summarizes data on their use, biodegradability, commercial reliability and production from renewable resources. Some commercially successful biodegradable plastics are based on chemical synthesis (i.e. polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polycaprolactone, and polyvinyl alcohol). Others are products of microbial fermentations (i.e. polyesters and neutral polysaccharides) or are prepared from chemically modified natural products (e.g., starch, cellulose, chitin or soy protein).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Flieger
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 142 20 Prague, Czechia
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Száraz L, Beczner J, Kayser G. Investigation of the biodegradability of water-insoluble materials in a solid test based on the adaptation of a biological oxygen demand measuring system. Polym Degrad Stab 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(03)00133-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Witt U, Einig T, Yamamoto M, Kleeberg I, Deckwer WD, Müller RJ. Biodegradation of aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters: evaluation of the final biodegradability and ecotoxicological impact of degradation intermediates. CHEMOSPHERE 2001; 44:289-299. [PMID: 11444312 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00162-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The biological degradation behaviour of the aliphatic-aromatic copolyester Ecoflex was investigated with regard to the degree of degradation and the intermediates formed during the degradation process. The individual thermophilic strain Thermomonospora fusca, isolated from compost material, was used for the degradation experiments in a defined synthetic medium at 55 degrees C. After 22 days of degradation more than 99.9% of the polymer had depolymerized and with regard to the degradation of the diacid and diol components of Ecoflex only the monomers of the copolyesters (1,4-butanediol, terephthalate and adipate) could be detected by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) measurements in the medium. In interrupted degradation experiments predominantly the monoesters of adipic acid and terephthalic acid with 1,4-butanediol were observed in addition to the monomers. In toxicological tests with Daphnia magna and Photobacterium phosphoreum no significant toxicological effect was observed, neither for the monomeric intermediates nor for the oligomeric intermediates. From a risk assessment it can be concluded that there is no indication for an environmental risk when aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters of the Ecoflex-type are introduced into composting processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Witt
- BASF AG, Polymer Laboratory, Ludwigshafen, Germany
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Pagga U, Schäfer A, Müller RJ, Pantke M. Determination of the aerobic biodegradability of polymeric material in aquatic batch tests. CHEMOSPHERE 2001; 42:319-331. [PMID: 11100932 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00069-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Results of an international ring-test of two laboratory methods are presented for investigating the biodegradability of organic polymeric test materials in aquatic test systems based on respirometry and the evolution of carbon dioxide. These methods are developed further from the well-known standardized biodegradation tests ISO 9408 (1999) and ISO 9439 (1999), which have been successfully used for many years. The most important improvements are the extension of the test period up to six months, the increase of the buffer capacity and nutrient supply of the inorganic medium, an optimization of the inoculation, and optionally, the possibility of a carbon balance. A ring test, organized by the International Biodeterioration Research Group (IBRG), was run using a poly(,-caprolactone)-starch blend and an aliphatic-aromatic co-polyester as test materials and a microcrystalline cellulose powder as a reference material. The test results and the experience gained by the participants showed that the methods are suitable and practicable. The test methods have been meanwhile established as standards ISO 14851 (1999) and ISO 14852 (1999).
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Affiliation(s)
- U Pagga
- BASF Aktiengesellschaft Ecology, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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van der Zee M, Stoutjesdijk JH, Feil H, Feijen J. Relevance of aquatic biodegradation tests for predicting degradation of polymeric materials during biological solid waste treatment. CHEMOSPHERE 1998; 36:461-473. [PMID: 9451809 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(97)10017-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The aquatic biodegradability of cellulose and cellulose acetate with degrees of substitution (d.s.) in the range of 1.5 to 3.0, was compared with the mineralization under laboratory controlled composting conditions. In line with previous observations, it was found that cellulose acetates with d.s. < or = 2.5 were readily mineralized to CO2 in the controlled composting test. The degradation rate was clearly affected by the degree of substitution (d.s. 1.5 > d.s. 2.5 > d.s. 3.0). Surprisingly, however, biodegradation of cellulose acetate materials was not observed in the aquatic Strum test. Modifications of the pH and the inoculum source in an attempt to improve the activity of fungi and actinomycetes in the aquatic environment, did not increase CO2-evolution. It is concluded that the relevance of modified Strum tests is limited for predicting complete biodegradation of polymeric materials during biological waste processing. For evaluation of the compostability of polymeric products or packaging materials, more relevant laboratory controlled composting tests should be used.
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Affiliation(s)
- M van der Zee
- ATO-DLO, Agrotechnological Research Institute, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Biodegradability and compostability of polymeric materials in the context of the European packaging regulation. Polym Degrad Stab 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(97)00192-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abstract
Laboratory test methods are used by industry laboratories to determine biodegradability, an important parameter for the evaluation of the ecological behaviour of substances. Biodegradability has a key role due to the simple fact that a degradable substance will cause no long term risk in the environment. The great variety of biodegradation processes in the natural environment and in technical plants for treating waste water and solid wastes gave rise to a rather large number of test methods based on different test principles. To guarantee the acceptance of the test results by authorities and customers internationally standardized methods (ISO, OECD) and established quality criteria (GLP, EN 45,000, ISO 9000) are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Pagga
- BASF Aktiengesellschaft, Ludwigshafen, Germany
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Pagga U, Beimborn DB, Yamamoto M. Biodegradability and compostability of polymers—test methods and criteria for evaluation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02067451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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