Lead exposure from lead crystal

Environmental exposures to lead, mercury, and cadmium among South Korean teenagers (KNHANES 2010-2013): Body burden and risk factors

INTRODUCTION

Limited information is available on the association of age and sex with blood concentrations of heavy metals in teenagers. In addition, factors such as a shared family environment may have an association. We analyzed data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES, 2010-2013) to determine whether blood levels of heavy metals differ by risk factors such as age, sex, and shared family environment in a representative sample of teenagers.

METHODS

This study used data obtained in the KNHANES 2010-2013, which had a rolling sampling design that involved a complex, stratified, multistage, probability-cluster survey of a representative sample of the non-institutionalized civilian population in South Korea. Our cross-sectional analysis was restricted to teenagers and their parents who completed the health examination survey, and for whom blood measurements of cadmium, lead, and mercury were available. The final analytical sample consisted of 1585 teenagers, and 376 fathers and 399 mothers who provided measurements of blood heavy metal concentrations.

RESULTS

Male teenagers had greater blood levels of lead and mercury, but sex had no association with blood cadmium level. There were age-related increases in blood cadmium, but blood lead decreased with age, and age had little association with blood mercury. The concentrations of cadmium and mercury declined from 2010 to 2013. The blood concentrations of lead, cadmium, and mercury in teenagers were positively associated with the levels in their parents after adjustment for covariates.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that blood heavy metal concentrations differ by risk factors such as age, sex, and shared family environment in teenagers.

Structure and Chemical Durability of Lead Crystal Glass

Silicate glasses containing lead, also called lead crystal glasses, are commonly used as food product containers, in particular for alcoholic beverages. Lead's health hazards require major attention, which can first be investigated through the understanding of Pb release mechanisms in solution. The behavior of a commercial crystal glass containing 10.6 mol % of PbO (28.3 wt %) was studied in a reference solution of 4% acetic acid at 22, 40, and 70 °C at early and advanced stages of reaction. High-resolution solid-state ¹⁷O and ²⁹Si NMR was used to probe the local structure of the pristine and, for the first time, of the altered lead crystal glass. Inserted into the vitreous structure between the network formers as Si-O-Pb bonds, Pb does not form Pb-O-Pb clusters which are expected to be more easily leached. A part of K is located near Pb, forming mixed Si-O-(Pb,K) near the nonbridging oxygens. Pb is always released into the solution following a diffusion-controlled dissolution over various periods of time, at a rate between 1 and 2 orders of magnitude lower than the alkalis (K and Na). The preferential release of alkalis is followed by an in situ repolymerization of the silicate network. Pb is only depleted in the outermost part of the alteration layer. In the remaining part, it stays mainly surrounded by Si in a stable structural configuration similar to that of the pristine glass. A simple model is proposed to estimate the Pb concentration as a function of glass surface, solution volume, temperature, and contact time.

Reference values of lead in blood and related factors among Korean adolescents: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010-2013

Purpose

This study aimed to assess the reference values and factors influencing blood lead levels among Korean adolescents.

Methods

The study population consisted of 1,585 adolescents (801 males, 784 females; aged 10-19 years) who participated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010-2013. We analyzed blood lead concentrations in relation to demographic/lifestyle characteristics for all participants. "Reference values" of blood lead levels were calculated as the upper limit of the 95% confidence interval of the 95th percentile.

Results

The average "reference value" for blood lead concentrations among Korean adolescents was 2.25 µg/dL (2.49 µg/dL for males, 2.07 µg/dL for females), and the geometric mean of the blood lead concentrations was 1.34 µg/dL. Males had higher blood lead concentrations than females (male, 1.48 µg/dL; female, 1.19 µg/dL; P<0.001). Elementary school students had higher blood lead concentrations than junior and senior high school students (1.44 µg/dL vs. 1.31 µg/dL, P<0.001). Participants living in detached houses had higher blood lead concentrations than those living in apartments (P<0.001) and current smokers had higher concentrations than nonsmokers or participants with secondhand smoke exposure (P<0.05). Additionally, participants with excessive alcohol consumption had higher levels than non-drinkers (P<0.001).

Conclusion

This study provides national reference data on blood lead concentrations stratified by demographic and lifestyle factors among Korean adolescents. Further studies are needed to elucidate the relationship between increased lead exposure and demographic factors including type of housing.

Visualisation and quantification of heavy metal accessibility in smelter slags: The influence of morphology on availability

The Imperial Smelting Furnace (ISF) for producing lead and zinc simultaneously has operated on four continents and in eleven countries from the 1950's. One of the process changes that the ISF introduced was the production of a finely granulated slag waste. Although this slag contained significant amounts of residual lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn), because of its glassy nature it was considered environmentally benign. From the Cockle Creek smelter near Boolaroo at the northern end of Lake Macquarie, NSW, Australia, it is estimated that around 2.1 million tonnes of the fine slag was distributed into the community and most remains where it was originally utilised. Residual tonnages of slag of this magnitude are common worldwide wherever the ISF operated. Studies of base metal smelting slags have concluded that mineralogical and morphological characteristics of the slag play a critical role in moderating environmental release of toxic elements. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and microanalysis of the ISF slags has shown that the Pb and associated elements are present as discrete nodules (∼6-22 μm) in the slag and that they are not associated with Zn which is contained in the glass slag phase. Using an automated SEM and analysis technique (QEMSCAN(®)) to "map" the mineralogical structure of the particles, it was possible to quantitatively determine the degree of access infiltrating fluids might have to the reaction surface of the Pb phases. The level of access decreases with increasing particle size, but in even the largest sized particles (-3350 + 2000 μm) nearly 80% of the Pb-containing phases were totally or partially accessible. These results provide evidence that the toxic elements in the slags are not contained by the glassy phase and will be vulnerable to leaching over time depending on their individual phase reactivity.

Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of lead poisoning in general population

Among the heavy metals, lead still remains the major toxic pollutant of the environment. Human exposure to lead can occur through numerous pathways including air, food, dust, soil, and water. In the present study 14 lead poisoned patients with non-occupational lead exposure were evaluated. They were followed up and compared against the controls with no history of lead exposure. The patients had high blood lead levels and symptoms of weakness, dizziness, abdominal pain, generalized body ache, loss of appetite, and anxiety. Repeated course of chelation therapy helped to bring down their body burden of lead. Alternative sources for lead exposure can cause severe lead poisoning in general population. Screening and medical management of such individuals is very important to identify and eliminate sources of lead. The treatment and management requires a thorough medical evaluation and environmental intervention.

Intoxication from an accidentally ingested lead shot retained in the gastrointestinal tract

A 45-year-old woman was referred to the Department of Occupational and Environmental Health in January 2002 because of increased blood lead concentrations of unknown origin. She suffered from malaise, fatigue, and diffuse gastrointestinal symptoms. She had a blood lead level of 550 microg/L (normal range < 40 microg/L). The patient had not been occupationally exposed to lead, and no potential lead sources, such as food products or lead-glazed pottery, could be identified. Her food habits were normal, but she did consume game occasionally. Clinical examination, including standard neurologic examination, was normal. No anemia was present. Laboratory tests showed an increased excretion of lead in the urine, but there were no signs of microproteinuria. An abdominal X ray in October 2002 revealed a 6-mm rounded metal object in the colon ascendens. Before the object could be further localized, the patient contracted winter vomiting disease (gastroenteritis) and the metal object was spontaneously released from the colon during a diarrhea attack. The object was a lead shot pellet, possibly but not normally used in Sweden for hunting wild boar or roe deer. Blood lead levels slowly decreased. Nine months later the patient's blood lead levels were almost normal (approximately 70 microg/L) and her symptoms had almost completely disappeared. In this case, a rare source of lead exposure was found. In investigations of blood lead elevations of unknown origin, we recommend abdominal X ray in parallel with repeated blood lead determinations.

Alimentary lead intake of adults in Thuringia/Germany determined with the duplicate portion technique

The daily lead intake in Germany in 1996 was studied using the duplicate portion technique. The study was carried out in four towns in Thuringia (Jena, Ronneburg, Rositz, Steudnitz), in which volunteers collected all foods and beverages over 7 consecutive days. The mean lead content of consumed food and beverages was 66 and 55 microg/kg dry matter for women and men, respectively; the average lead intake was 19 microg/day for both, women and men. In relation to body weight (b.w.) the intake for women was 283 ng/kg and for men 242 ng/kg b.w. These values are well below the WHO limit. An oral lead exposure of the adult population of Thuringia/Germany can be excluded.

Lead poisoning from drinking Kombucha tea brewed in a ceramic pot

Kombucha tea is an alternative therapy that is gaining popularity as a remedy for a diverse range of ailments. We report two cases of symptomatic lead poisoning requiring chelation therapy in a married couple who had been drinking Kombucha tea for six months, brewing the tea in a ceramic pot. We postulate that acids in the tea eluted lead from the glaze pigment used in the ceramic pot, in a manner analogous to elution of lead from crystal decanters by wine and spirits.

Lead and other metals in play kit and craft items composed of vinyl and leather

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Lead migration from lead crystal wine glasses

Lead release from lead crystal wine glasses was measured at 15 contact times from 1 min to 24 h (1440 min) in 4% acetic acid and wine at room temperature. Lead release at 1 min was equal to approximately 50 and 30% of cumulative lead release measured at 30 and 1440 min, respectively, in both extractants. Lead release at 1440 min was 467 ng/ml in acetic acid and 358 ng/ml in wine. Lead release was less in wine (pH 3.14) than in acetic acid (pH 2.39) because of the increased pH and ethanol content of wine. Lead release was also measured under conditions that simulated consumer use. In experiments with chilled and room temperature wine that was steadily removed from vessels during 1-30 min of contact, results were not significantly less than results of experiments in which wine temperature was 20.0 +/- 2.5 degrees C and contact area was constant. In repeated-leaching experiments, the total micrograms of lead released in 30 min decreased and was a function of 1/L2, where L was leach number. Wine results fit a linear regression model of lead release vs square root of time which was previously proposed to describe corrosion of lead silicate glass by acetic acid. Slopes and intercepts of the square-root-of-time model were used to explain results of repeated-leaching experiments.

Beverages as a source of toxic trace element intake

Beverages of different kinds have been investigated for their content of lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium, arsenic and mercury. About a ten times higher lead concentration was found in wine than in most other beverages. Cocoa was high in cadmium and nickel and some vegetable juices contained high levels of nickel. The daily intake of trace elements from beverages was estimated. Wine was still the most significant source of lead even if the bottles did not have lead capsules. By consumption of half a bottle per day the daily intake of lead would be doubled and it would contribute 12% of Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake. Cocoa is an important source of cadmium and nickel, and consumption of tea as well as vegetable juices could increase the nickel intake significantly. The data are compared to Danish maximum limits on lead and cadmium.

Release of lead from crystal decanters under conditions of normal use

The pattern of release of lead (Pb) from crystal was investigated using new and used decanters. Two decanters in use prior to this study yielded significantly less Pb into sherry than did a decanter during its initial use. Pb concentrations in sherry after storage for 2 months reached 50, 163 or 1410 micrograms/litre in decanters previously used for 20, or for 10 yr, or a new decanter, respectively. The new decanter imparted progressively less Pb through normal use. Pb concentration was assayed in sherry during a series of three separate sampling periods, each 2 months in duration. The Pb concentration at the end of each period was 1410, 330 or 150 micrograms/litre respectively. These data are consistent with ceramic chemistry theory, which predicts that leaching of Pb from crystal is self-limiting exponentially as a function of increasing distance from the crystal-liquid interface. The results of this investigation support the concept that sufficient ageing of Pb crystal prior to use reduces, to acceptable levels, the human health risk to adults associated with consumption of beverages stored in Pb crystal decanters.

Risk factors for motor neuron disease: a case-control study based on patients from the Scottish Motor Neuron Disease Register

In order to identify risk factors for the subsequent development of motor neuron disease (MND) we have carried out a case-control study of incident patients in Scotland, identified using the Scottish Motor Neuron Disease Register. A standard questionnaire was given to 103 patients and the same number of community controls matched on a one to one basis using the general practitioner's (GP) age and sex register. Recall bias was minimised by using GP records to verify the subject's report. There was an overall lifetime excess of fractures in patients, odds ratio (OR) = 1.3 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.7-2.5) and this was highest in the 5 years before symptom onset (OR = 15, 95% CI, 3.3-654). There was no association with non-fracture trauma but the OR for a manual occupation in patients was 2.6 (95% CI, 1.1-6.3). Both occupational exposure to lead (OR = 5.7, 95% CI, 1.6-30) and solvents/chemicals (OR = 3.3, 95% CI 1.3-10) were significantly more common in patients. No consistent association was found between MND and factors reflecting socioeconomic deprivation in childhood; childhood infections or social class. Our results identify a number of different factors which may contribute to the aetiology of MND.

The role of nutrition in sickness and in health

This article reviews the importance of food and water for survival and the wide ranges of nutrient intake capable of sustaining reproduction and growth. It also reviews the different types of adverse reactions to foods including hypersensitivity or allergic reactions, pharmacologic and metabolic adverse responses to foods, and natural and industrial toxins in the food chains. The article concludes with recommendations for dealing with patients who advocate the use of "natural" foods and products.

Potential lead exposures from lead crystal decanters

We measured the concentrations of lead leached into 4% acetic acid, white port, and a synthetic alcoholic beverage that were stored in lead crystal decanters for 1-, 2-, and 10-day periods at room temperature. In decanters from 14 different manufacturers, measured lead concentrations ranged from 100 to 1800 micrograms/L. The pH of the leaching medium is probably the dominant factor determining the extent of lead leached, with greater leaching occurring at lower pH values. The consumption of alcoholic beverages stored in lead crystal decanters is judged to pose a hazard.

Hair dye use and multiple myeloma in white men

In recent reports, multiple myeloma has been linked to use of hair coloring products containing mutagenic and carcinogenic chemicals. A population-based case-control study in Iowa of 173 White men with multiple myeloma and 650 controls obtained information on hair dye use. Risk of multiple myeloma was significantly elevated (OR = 1.9) among hair dye users and was greatest among those using hair dyes at least once a month for a year or more (OR = 4.3). These data, along with results from other studies, suggest that use of hair dyes contributes to the development of multiple myeloma.

Review of lead toxicology relevant to the safety assessment of lead acetate as a hair colouring

The literature on lead toxicology has been critically reviewed to provide a safety assessment of lead acetate as a hair colouring. The main objectives were: (i) to determine the additional lead contribution from hair-colouring use to the total daily environmental lead intake; and (ii) to assess the toxicological significance of this additional contribution. The review also focuses attention on newer issues of concern over the effects of environmental lead on human health. Data available in animals and humans (including occupational exposure), mainly on lead acetate and other inorganic lead salts, have been presented and evaluated in respect of the following: absorption, distribution and excretion following ingestion; percutaneous absorption; carcinogenicity; genotoxicity; reproductive toxicity; neurological/behavioural status with particular reference to neuropsychological effects in children; and effects on other systems (e.g. cardiovascular). It is concluded that the absorption of lead from hair-colouring use represents about 0.5% of the lead absorption from the current average daily environmental lead intake. No convincing evidence could be found of any deleterious effect of current environmental lead levels on human health and thus the tiny contribution of lead acetate exposure from hair-colouring use can be regarded unequivocally as being toxicologically insignificant.