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Cephalosporin C biosynthesis and fermentation in Acremonium chrysogenum. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:6413-6426. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12181-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Liu Y, Xie L, Gong G, Zhang W, Zhu B, Hu Y. De novo comparative transcriptome analysis of Acremonium chrysogenum: high-yield and wild-type strains of cephalosporin C producer. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104542. [PMID: 25118715 PMCID: PMC4131913 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
β-lactam antibiotics are widely used in clinic. Filamentous fungus Acremonium chrysogenum is an important industrial fungus for the production of CPC, one of the major precursors of β-lactam antibiotics. Although its fermentation yield has been bred significantly over the past decades, little is known regarding molecular changes between the industrial strain and the wild type strain. This limits the possibility to improve CPC production further by molecular breeding. Comparative transcriptome is a powerful tool to understand the molecular mechanisms of CPC industrial high yield producer compared to wild type. A total of 57 million clean sequencing reads with an average length of 100 bp were generated from Illumina sequencing platform. 22,878 sequences were assembled. Among the assembled unigenes, 9502 were annotated and 1989 annotated sequences were assigned to 121 pathways by searching against the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway (KEGG) database. Furthermore, we compared the transcriptome differences between a high-yield and a wild-type strain during fermentation. A total of 4329 unigenes with significantly different transcription level were identified, among which 1737 were up-regulated and 2592 were down-regulated. 24 pathways were subsequently determined which involve glycerolipid metabolism, galactose metabolism, and pyrimidine metabolism. We also examined the transcription levels of 18 identified genes, including 11 up-regulated genes and 7 down-regulated genes using reverse transcription quantitative -PCR (RT-qPCR). The results of RT-qPCR were consistent with the Illumina sequencing. In this study, the Illumina sequencing provides the most comprehensive sequences for gene expression profile of Acremonium chrysogenum and allows de novo transcriptome assembly while lacking genome information. Comparative analysis of RNA-seq data reveals the complexity of the transcriptome in the fermentation of different yield strains. This is an important public information platform which could be used to accelerate the research to improve CPC production in Acremonium chrysogenum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Liu
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Liping Xie
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Guihua Gong
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Baoquan Zhu
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (YH); (BZ)
| | - Youjia Hu
- China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (YH); (BZ)
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Luo H, Zhang J, Yuan G, Zhao Y, Liu H, He Z, Shi Z. Performance improvement of cephalosporin C fermentation by Acremonium chrysogenum with DO-Stat based strategy of co-feeding soybean oil and glucose. Process Biochem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2013.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Simulation of computational fluid dynamics and comparison of cephalosporin C fermentation performance with different impeller combinations. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-013-0010-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Cao YX, Lu H, Qiao B, Chen Y, Yuan YJ. Comparison of the secondary metabolites in two scales of cephalosporin C (CPC) fermentation and two different post-treatment processes. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 40:95-103. [PMID: 23053347 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-012-1203-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cephalosporin C (CPC) is the precursor of a class of antibiotics that were more effective than traditional penicillins. CPC production is performed mainly through fermentation by Acremonium chrysogenum, whose secondary metabolism was sensitive to the environmental changes. In the present work, secondary metabolites were measured by ion-pair reversed-phase liquid chromatography tandemed with hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and the disparity of them from two scales of CPC fermentations (pilot and industrial) and also two different post-treatment processes (oxalic acid and formaldehyde added and control) were investigated. When fermentation size was enlarged from pilot scale (50 l) to industrial scale (156,000 l), the remarkable disparities of concentrations and changing trends of the secondary metabolites in A. chrysogenum were observed, which indicated that the productivity of CPC biosynthesis was higher in the large scale of fermentation. Three environmental factors were measured, and the potential reasons that might cause the differences were analyzed. In the post-treatment process after industrial fermentation, the changes of these secondary metabolites in the tank where oxalic acid and formaldehyde were added were much less than the control tank where none was added. This indicated that the quality of the final product was more stable after the oxalic acid and formaldehyde were added in the post-treatment process. These findings provided new insight into industrial CPC production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Xiu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education and Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
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Liu L, Long LK, An Y, Yang J, Xu X, Hu CH, Liu G. The thioredoxin reductase-encoding gene ActrxR1 is involved in the cephalosporin C production of Acremonium chrysogenum in methionine-supplemented medium. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:2551-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4368-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/12/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Xu B, Yin Y, Zhang F, Li Z, Wang L. Operating conditions optimization for (+)-terrein production in a stirred bioreactor by Aspergillus terreus strain PF-26 from marine sponge Phakellia fusca. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2012; 35:1651-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s00449-012-0735-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Comparative lipidomic analysis of Cephalosporium acremonium insights into industrial and pilot fermentations. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-011-0494-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Duan S, Yuan G, Zhao Y, Li H, Ni W, Sang M, Liu L, Shi Z. Enhanced cephalosporin C production with a combinational ammonium sulfate and DO-Stat based soybean oil feeding strategy. Biochem Eng J 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2011.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Li J, Yang Y, Chu J, Huang M, Li L, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhuang Y, Zhang S. Quantitative metabolic flux analysis revealed uneconomical utilization of ATP and NADPH in Acremonium chrysogenum fed with soybean oil. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2010; 33:1119-29. [PMID: 20571830 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-010-0439-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A metabolic network was constructed for the Acremonium chrysogenum cultivation fed with soybean oil. Metabolic flux analysis indicated that the shift from exponential growth to rapid cephalosporin C (CPC) formation was accompanied by 1.63- and 5-fold carbon flux enlargement in TCA cycle and glyoxylate by-pass, respectively. The flux via pentose phosphate pathway branch was little affected during the rapid CPC formation period; the contributory explanation was that 35.6% of NADPH was consumed in the dissimilation of fatty acids. Estimation of NADPH, ATP generation, and consumption demonstrated that, with soybean oil as carbon source in rapid CPC formation phase, the NADPH consumed in fatty acid catabolism was fourfold greater than that used in the CPC biosynthesis-relevant part; simultaneously, more than 90% energy spent was not directly related to the CPC formation. Therefore, the improvement of CPC production yield through optimization of the NADPH, ATP generation, and consumption was put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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El-Sabbagh N, Harvey LM, McNeil B. Effects of dissolved carbon dioxide on growth, nutrient consumption, cephalosporin C synthesis and morphology of Acremonium chrysogenum in batch cultures. Enzyme Microb Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Nutritional and engineering aspects of microbial process development. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 2007; 65:291, 293-328. [PMID: 18084919 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7643-8117-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Today we use many drugs produced by microorganisms. However, when these drugs were discovered it was found that the yields were low and a substantial effort had to be put in to develop commercially viable processes. A key part of this endeavor was the studies of the nutritional and the engineering parameters. In this chapter, the basic principles of optimizing the nutritional and engineering aspect of the production process are described with appropriate examples. It was found that two critical components of nutritional medium, carbon and nitrogen source regulated the synthesis of the compounds of interest. Rapidly utilizable carbon source such as glucose supported the growth but led to catabolite repression and alternative carbon sources or methods of addition had to be devised. Inorganic nitrogen sources led to undesirable changes in pH of the medium. Organic nitrogen sources could influence the yields positively or negatively and had to be chosen carefully. Essential nutrients like phosphates often inhibited the synthesis and its concentration had to be maintained below the inhibitory levels. On many occasions, trace nutrients like metal ions and vitamins were found to be critical for good production. Temperature and pH were important environmental variables and their optimum values had to be determined. The media were designed and optimized initially with 'one variable at a time' approach and later with experimental design based on statistics. The latter approach is preferred because it is economical, considers interactions between medium components and allows rapid optimization of the process. The engineering aspects like aeration, agitation, medium sterilization, heat transfer, process monitoring and control, become critical as the process is scaled-up to the production size. Aeration and agitation are probably the most important variables. In many processes dissolved oxygen concentration had to be maintained above a critical value to obtain the best yields. The rheological properties of fermentation broth significantly affect the aeration and mixing efficiency. The removal of heat from the large fermentors can be difficult under certain conditions. However, new designs of impellers, availability of sensors to monitor important physiological and process variables and advent of computers have facilitated successful scale-up of fermentation processes.
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El-Sabbagh N, McNeil B, Harvey LM. Dissolved carbon dioxide effects on growth, nutrient consumption, penicillin synthesis and morphology in batch cultures of Penicillium chrysogenum. Enzyme Microb Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2005.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Mishra P, Srivastava P, Kundu S. A comparative evaluation of oxygen mass transfer and broth viscosity using Cephalosporin-C production as a case strategy. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-004-3489-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Lai LST, Tsai TH, Wang TC, Cheng TY. The influence of culturing environments on lovastatin production by Aspergillus terreus in submerged cultures. Enzyme Microb Technol 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2004.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Seidel G, Tollnick C, Beyer M, Fahimi Y, Schügerl K. Process engineering aspects of the production of cephalosporin C by Acremonium chrysogenum. Part I. Application of complex media. Process Biochem 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0032-9592(02)00081-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Gibbs PA, Seviour RJ, Schmid F. Growth of filamentous fungi in submerged culture: problems and possible solutions. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2000; 20:17-48. [PMID: 10770226 DOI: 10.1080/07388550091144177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Filamentous fungi are important organisms industrially and continue to attract research interest as microbiologists attempt to overcome the problems associated with their behavior in submerged culture. This review critically examines the literature describing these problems and where available suggests possible solutions to them. The influence of the chemical and physical environment on culture morphology, the process engineering challenges presented by different fungal morphologies, and the relationship between fungal morphology and metabolite production are all discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Gibbs
- Biotechnology Research Center, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Victoria, Australia
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22
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Seidel G, Tollnick C, Beyer M, Schügerl K. On-line and off-line monitoring of the production of cephalosporin C by Acremonium chrysogenum. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 1999; 66:115-32. [PMID: 10592528 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-48773-5_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Process monitoring of cephalosporin C formation by Acremonium chrysogenum in laboratory investigations is considered. The goal of these investigations is the identification of bottlenecks in the biosynthesis and the improvement of the process performance. Based on reports of other research groups and own experience the key parameters were selected, which influence the process performance. They are: dissolved oxygen and pH values. In addition the concentrations of biomass, DNA, glucose and reducing sugars (glucose, maltose, maltotriose and oligosaccharides), methionine, other nitrogen sources (ammonium ion, other amino acids), organic acids, phosphate, sulfate, dissolved organic carbon, proteins, product and precursors in the cell free cultivation medium are monitored. In addition the intracellular concentrations of RNA, DNA, proteins, amino acids as well as the activities of the enzymes of the biosynthesis of cephalosporin C are determined. The influence of these parameters on the biosynthesis is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Seidel
- Institut für Technische Chemie, Universität Hannover, Germany
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Diaz C, Dieu P, Feuillerat C, Lelong P, Salomé M. Simultaneous adaptive predictive control of the partial pressures of dissolved oxygen (pO2) and dissolved carbon dioxide (pCO2) in a laboratory-scale bioreactor. J Biotechnol 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1656(96)01637-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Diaz C, Dieu P, Feuillerat C, Lelong P, Salomé M. Adaptive predictive control of dissolved oxygen concentration in a laboratory-scale bioreactor. J Biotechnol 1995; 43:21-32. [PMID: 8573319 DOI: 10.1016/0168-1656(95)00101-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We present an algorithm for the adaptive control of dissolved oxygen concentration in a bioreactor, based on the agitation rate. The dynamics are represented by an incremental first-order model with variable dead-time and parameters. These are estimated on-line by a recursive least-squares identification method with a forgetting factor and a constant sensitivity. The model is employed to predict the behaviour of the dissolved oxygen concentration over a finite horizon, using an original method which requires little computation. Then, a Generalized Predictive Control optimisation strategy computes the agitation rate from the predictions and the desired set point, while gradually updating the controller smoothness. This algorithm, which requires little preliminary knowledge, has been implemented on a laboratory-scale fed-batch bioreactor for which the use of conventional controllers showed limited performance, due to the unpredictable and evolutive nature of the dynamics. The new controller proved to be robust and effective over a wide range of operating conditions, while requiring no operator adjustments.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Diaz
- Sanofi Recherche, Labège Innopole, France
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Physostigmine production byStreptomyces griseofuscus NRRL 5324: Process development and scale-up studies. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 1995. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01569967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Weil J, Miramonti J, Ladisch MR. Biosynthesis of cephalosporin C: Regulation and recombinant technology. Enzyme Microb Technol 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(94)00084-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Dick O, Onken U, Sattler I, Zeeck A. Influence of increased dissolved oxygen concentration on productivity and selectivity in cultures of a colabomycin-producing strain of Streptomyces griseoflavus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00212244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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28
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Dick O, Onken U, Sattler I, Zeeck A. Influence of increased dissolved oxygen concentration on productivity and selectivity in cultures of a colabomycin-producing strain of Streptomyces griseoflavus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1994; 41:373-7. [PMID: 7765099 DOI: 10.1007/bf00939022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The influence of enhanced O2 concentration on growth and formation of secondary metabolites by Streptomyces griseoflavus (strain Tü 2880) was investigated in a stirred tank and in an air-lift fermentor. At a partial pressure of O2 Po2 = 1880 mbar the growth was lowered by 50% compared to Po2 = 210 mbar, whilst substrate consumption and O2 uptake rate increased markedly. Production of the colabomycin complex reached maximum values at Po2 = 630 mbar. A similar increase of secondary metabolite formation was obtained when glycerol or acetate were fed at Po2 = 220 mbar. The portion of the derivate colabomycin A in the product mixture rose from 43% at Po2 = 210 mbar to 73% at Po2 = 1260 mbar. Since dissolved O2 concentration has a significant influence on productivity and selectivity it may be used to regulate aerobic fermentation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Dick
- Universität Dortmund, Fachbereich Chemietechnik, Lehrstuhl für Technische Chemie B, Germany
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Sohn YS, Lee KC, Koh YH, Gil GH. Changes in Cellular Fatty Acid Composition of Cephalosporium acremonium during Cephalosporin C Production. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994; 60:947-52. [PMID: 16349222 PMCID: PMC201415 DOI: 10.1128/aem.60.3.947-952.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cephalosporium acremonium was cultivated in fermentation medium containing sucrose or methyl oleate as a carbon source for cephalosporin C production. The level of antibiotic production was 48 g of cephalosporin C per liter under optimum conditions when methyl oleate was used. The C(18:1) (oleic acid) methyl ester appeared to be utilized faster than the C(18:2) (linoleic acid) methyl ester in fermentation broth. Physiological characteristics of C. acremonium were investigated by determining the fatty acid composition of the total cellular free lipid. Significant changes in cellular fatty acid composition occurred during inoculum cultivation and fermentation. The percentage of C(18:1) increased from 19.1 to 38.5%, but the percentage of C(18:2) decreased from 56.7 to 36.1%, and there was an increase in pH during inoculum cultivation. The cellular fatty acid composition of C. acremonium grown in fermentation medium containing methyl oleate (methyl oleate medium) was significantly different from that in fermentation medium containing sucrose (sucrose medium). The major fatty acids detected were C(16:0) (palmitic acid), C(18:1), and C(18:2). In methyl oleate medium, the ratio of C(18:1) to C(18:2) increased from 0.34 to 1.37, while the cell morphology changed from hyphae to arthrospores and conidia. In contrast, in sucrose medium, the ratio of C(18:1) to C(18:2) decreased from 0.70 to 0.43, and most of the cells remained hyphal at the end of fermentation. We observed that hyphae contained a higher proportion of C(18:2) but arthrospores and conidia contained a higher proportion of C(18:1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Sohn
- R & D Center, Cheil Foods & Chemicals, Inc., 522-1 Tokpyong-ri, Majang-myon, Ichon-gun, Kyonggi-do, Korea
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