Compositional and structural analysis of PELA biodegradable block copolymers degrading under in vitro conditions

In Vitro and In Vivo Hydrolytic Degradation Behaviors of a Drug-Delivery System Based on the Blend of PEG and PLA Copolymers

This paper presents the in vitro and in vivo degradation of BEPO, a marketed in situ forming depot technology used for the formulation of long-acting injectables. BEPO is composed of a solution of a blend of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) triblock and diblock in an organic solvent, where a therapeutic agent may be dissolved or suspended. Upon contact with an aqueous environment, the solvent diffuses and the polymers precipitate, entrapping the drug and forming a reservoir. Two representative BEPO compositions were subjected to a 3-month degradation study in vitro by immersion in phosphate-buffered saline at 37 °C and in vivo after subcutaneous injection in minipig. The material erosion rate, as a surrogate of the bioresorption, determined via the depot weight loss, changed substantially, depending on the composition and content of polymers within the test item. The swelling properties and internal morphology of depots were shown to be highly dependent on the solvent exchange rate during the precipitation step. Thermal analyses displayed an increase of the depot glass transition temperature over the degradation process, with no crystallinity observed at any stage. The chemical composition of degraded depots was determined by 1H NMR and gel permeation chromatography and demonstrated an enrichment in homopolymers, i.e., free PLA and (m)PEG, to the detriment of (m)PEG-PLA copolymers in both formulations. It was observed that the relative ratio of the degradants within the depot is driven by the initial polymer composition. Interestingly, in vitro and in vivo results showed very good qualitative consistency. Taken together, the outcomes from this study demonstrate that the different hydrolytic degradation behaviors of the BEPO compositions can be tuned by adjusting the polymer composition of the formulation.

Biodegradable Block Copolymer-Tannic Acid Glue

Bioadhesives are becoming an essential and important ingredient in medical science. Despite numerous reports, developing adhesive materials that combine strong adhesion, biocompatibility, and biodegradation remains a challenging task. Here, we present a biocompatible yet biodegradable block copolymer-based waterborne superglue that leads to an application of follicle-free hair transplantation. Our design strategy bridges self-assembled, temperature-sensitive block copolymer nanostructures with tannic acid as a sticky and biodegradable polyphenolic compound. The formulation further uniquely offers step-by-step increases in adhesion strength via heating-cooling cycles. Combining the modular design with the thermal treating process enhances the mechanical properties up to 5 orders of magnitude compared to the homopolymer formulation. This study opens a new direction in bioadhesive formulation strategies utilizing block copolymer nanotechnology for systematic and synergistic control of the material's properties.

Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Posterolateral Fusion Performance of Biphasic Calcium Phosphate with Submicron Needle-Shaped Surface Topography Combined with a Novel Polymer Binder

A biphasic calcium phosphate with submicron needle-shaped surface topography combined with a novel polyethylene glycol/polylactic acid triblock copolymer binder (BCP-EP) was investigated in this study. This study aims to evaluate the composition, degradation mechanism and bioactivity of BCP-EP in vitro, and its in vivo performance as an autograft bone graft (ABG) extender in a rabbit Posterolateral Fusion (PLF) model. The characterization of BCP-EP and its in vitro degradation products showed that the binder hydrolyses rapidly into lactic acid, lactide oligomers and unaltered PEG (polyethylene glycol) without altering the BCP granules and their characteristic submicron needle-shaped surface topography. The bioactivity of BCP-EP after immersion in SBF revealed a progressive surface mineralization. In vivo, BCP-EP was assessed in a rabbit PLF model by radiography, manual palpation, histology and histomorphometry up to 12 weeks post-implantation. Twenty skeletally mature New Zealand (NZ) White Rabbits underwent single-level intertransverse process PLF surgery at L4/5 using (1) autologous bone graft (ABG) alone or (2) by mixing in a 1:1 ratio with BCP-EP (BCP-EP/ABG). After 3 days of implantation, histology showed the BCP granules were in direct contact with tissues and cells. After 12 weeks, material resorption and mature bone formation were observed, which resulted in solid fusion between the two transverse processes, following all assessment methods. BCP-EP/ABG showed comparable fusion rates with ABG at 12 weeks, and no graft migration or adverse reaction were noted at the implantation site nor in distant organs.

Phase Separation and Elastic Properties of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate)-block-poly(Ethylene Oxide) Copolymers

A series of poly(trimethylene terephthalate)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (PTT-b-PEOT) copolymers with different compositions of rigid PTT and flexible PEOT segments were synthesized via condensation in the melt. The influence of the block length and the block ratio on the micro-separated phase structure and elastic properties of the synthesized multiblock copolymers was studied. The PEOT segments in these copolymers were kept constant at 1130, 2130 or 3130 g/mol, whereas the PTT content varied from 30 up to 50 wt %. The phase separation was assessed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA). The crystal structure of the synthesised block copolymers and their microstructure on the manometer scale was evaluated by using WAXS and SAXS analysis. Depending on the PTT/PEOT ratio, but also on the rigid and flexible segment length in PTT-b-PEO copolymers, four different domains were observed i.e.,: a crystalline PTT phase, a crystalline PEO phase (which exists for the whole series based on three types of PEOT segments), an amorphous PTT phase (only at 50 wt % content of PTT rigid segments) and an amorphous PEO phase. Moreover, the elastic deformability and reversibility of PTT-b-PEOT block copolymers were studied during a cyclic tensile test. Determined values of permanent set resultant from maximum attained stain (100% and 200%) for copolymers were used to evaluate their elastic properties.

Biodegradable PEG-Based Amphiphilic Block Copolymers for Tissue Engineering Applications

Biodegradable tissue engineering scaffolds have great potential for delivering cells/therapeutics and supporting tissue formation. Polyesters, the most extensively investigated biodegradable synthetic polymers, are not ideally suited for diverse tissue engineering applications due to limitations associated with their hydrophobicity. This review discusses the design and applications of amphiphilic block copolymer scaffolds integrating hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) blocks with hydrophobic polyesters. Specifically, we highlight how the addition of PEG results in striking changes to the physical properties (swelling, degradation, mechanical, handling) and biological performance (protein & cell adhesion) of the degradable synthetic scaffolds in vitro. We then perform a critical review of how these in vitro characteristics translate to the performance of biodegradable amphiphilic block copolymer-based scaffolds in the repair of a variety of tissues in vivo including bone, cartilage, skin, and spinal cord/nerve. We conclude the review with recommendations for future optimizations in amphiphilic block copolymer design and the need for better-controlled in vivo studies to reveal the true benefits of the amphiphilic synthetic tissue scaffolds.

An amphiphilic degradable polymer/hydroxyapatite composite with enhanced handling characteristics promotes osteogenic gene expression in bone marrow stromal cells

Electrospun polymer/hydroxyapatite (HA) composites combining biodegradability with osteoconductivity are attractive for skeletal tissue engineering applications. However, most biodegradable polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) are hydrophobic and do not blend with adequate interfacial adhesion with HA, compromising the structural homogeneity, mechanical integrity and biological performance of the composite. To overcome this challenge, we combined a hydrophilic polyethylene glycol (PEG) block with poly(d,l-lactic acid) to improve the adhesion of the degradable polymer with HA. The amphiphilic triblock copolymer PLA-PEG-PLA (PELA) improved the stability of HA-PELA suspension at 25wt.% HA content, which was readily electrospun into HA-PELA composite scaffolds with uniform fiber dimensions. HA-PELA was highly extensible (failure strain>200% vs. <40% for HA-PLA), superhydrophilic (∼0° water contact angle vs. >100° for HA-PLA), and exhibited an 8-fold storage modulus increase (unlike deterioration for HA-PLA) upon hydration, owing to the favorable interaction between HA and PEG. HA-PELA also better promoted osteochondral lineage commitment of bone marrow stromal cells in unstimulated culture and supported far more potent osteogenic gene expression upon induction than HA-PLA. We demonstrate that the chemical incorporation of PEG is an effective strategy to improve the performance of degradable polymer/HA composites for bone tissue engineering applications.

New properties from PLA-PEO-PLA hydrogels

Polymeric materials are important in many medical applications. Regenerative medicine offers the potential to repair or replace damaged tissue and polymers are an essential component of many tissue engineering approaches. Hydrogels have many advantageous properties but, generally, lack robust mechanical properties. At the same time, mounting evidence points to the importance of the matrix modulus when constructing devices. In this context, triblock copolymers made from poly(-lactide)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(-lactide) have been prepared and formulated into hydrogels. Investigations into their mechanical properties found the elastic modulus to be greater than 10 kPa which is at least one order of magnitude stiffer than previously reported from macromolecules composed of similar monomers. Part of the reason is the presence of crystalline lactide domains. Creating hydrogels with tailored modulus across the kPa range will likely have important ramifications in regenerative medicine.

Designing biodegradable multiblock PCL/PLA thermoplastic elastomers

A series of poly(epsilon-caprolactone)/poly(L-lactic acid) (PCL/PLA) biodegradable poly(ester-urethane)s, was synthesized and characterized. The first step of the synthesis consisted of the ring opening polymerization of L-lactide, initiated by the hydroxyl terminal groups of the PCL chain, followed by the chain extension of these PLA-PCL-PLA triblocks, using hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). The trimers comprised PCL2000 flexible segments, while the length of each PLA block covered the 550-6000 molecular weight range. The morphology of the copolymers gradually changed, as the length of the PLA blocks increased. The multiblock copolymers produced displayed enhanced mechanical properties, with ultimate tensile strength values around 32 MPa, Young's modulus as low as 30 MPa and elongation at break values well above 600%. The longer the PLA block, the slower the in vitro degradation of the material, with all copolymers degrading faster than the respective homopolymers.

Modifying the release of gentamicin from microparticles using a PLGA blend

Carrier systems for local gentamicin (GS) treatment based on collagen sponges and polymethylmethacrylate beads show pharmacokinetic disadvantages in their GS-release profiles. Therefore, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles were devised. None of the five poly(alpha-hydroxy acid)s tested resulted in the desired antibiotic release over approximately one week. However, preparing microparticles from a 50/50 blend of Resomer RG 502H, an uncapped variety, and Resomer RG 503, an endcapped polymer, yielded the targeted liberation profile. The mechanism of GS release was investigated by analyzing water uptake and polymer molecular weight. Release of GS from RG 502H particles occurred instantaneously and coincided with substantial water penetration. Particles prepared from RG 503 started out at a higher molecular weight and since the endcapped polymer takes up less water, the decrease in molecular weight was delayed. The threshold of collapse was reached after two weeks, which coincided with water penetration and GS release. For the 50/50 RG 502H/RG 503 blend, this process was delayed for two to three days. Hydrolysis occurred at the same rate as for RG 502H due to the high water content as a consequence of the uncapped polymer fraction and renders GS release over one week with release limited to 30% in the first two days due to the endcapped polymer fraction of higher molecular weight. Thus, the mixture of endcapped and uncapped Resome exhibits a new quality for adjusting drug release from poly(alpha-hydroxy acid)s.

Biodegradable poly(ethylene oxide)/poly(epsilon-caprolactone) multiblock copolymers

A series of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)/poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) containing biodegradable poly(ether ester urethane)s, covering a wide range of compositions, were synthesized and characterized. The synthesis consisted of a two-step process. During the first step, the ring-opening reaction of epsilon-caprolactone was carried out, initiated by the hydroxyl terminal groups of the PEO chain. The second step involved the chain extension of these PCL-PEO-PCL trimers with hexamethylene diisocyanate. By varying either the ethylene oxide/epsilon-caprolactone ratio or the length of both segments, we obtained a series of polymers having different morphologies and displaying a broad range of properties.

ABA-triblock copolymers from biodegradable polyester A-blocks and hydrophilic poly(ethylene oxide) B-blocks as a candidate for in situ forming hydrogel delivery systems for proteins

Hydrogels are very attractive delivery systems for hydrophilic macromolecules such as proteins and DNA because they provide a protective environment and allow control of diffusion by adjusting cross-link densities. Physically cross-linked hydrogels generated by rapid swelling upon exposure to an aqueous environment can be obtained from ABA triblock copolymers containing hydrophobic polyester A-blocks and hydrophilic polyether B-blocks. They provide an attractive alternative to chemically cross-linked systems since they allow incorporation of macromolecular drug substances under mild process conditions. Moreover, they show controlled degradation behavior and excellent biocompatibility. In this review the synthesis and characterization of ABA triblock copolymers from polyester hard segments and poly(ethylene oxide) [PEO] soft segments as well as their biological and degradation properties will be discussed. Their use as biodegradable drug delivery devices in the form of implants, micro- and nanospheres has attracted considerable interest especially for proteins and may provide an alternative to poly(lactide-co-glycolide).

Effect of acetylation of biodegradable polyrotaxanes on its supramolecular dissociation via terminal ester hydrolysis

Acetylation of biodegradable polyrotaxanes was examined to estimate the effect on its supramolecular dissociation via terminal ester hydrolysis. The biodegradable polyrotaxanes, in which many alpha-cyclodextrins (alpha-CD) are threaded onto a poly(ethylene glycol) chain capped with L-phenylalanine via ester linkages, were acetylated using acetic anhydride; alpha-CD release behavior was then characterized by in vitro hydrolysis. The degree of acetylation was changed by the concentration of acetic anhydride and the reaction time. The results of the in vitro hydrolysis indicate that the critical degree of acetylation to prolong supramolecular dissociation lies at around 30%. The terminal hydrolysis proceeded completely even with 100% of acetylation. These findings suggest that the hydrophobization of alpha-CDs in the polyrotaxane makes it possible to delay the time to complete the supramolecular dissociation. The hydrophobization of the polyrotaxane is of great importance for designing implantable materials that maintain their supramolecular structure until tissue regeneration with complete terminal hydrolysis.

Improving protein delivery from microparticles using blends of poly(DL lactide co-glycolide) and poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) copolymers

PURPOSE

Microparticles containing ovalbumin as a model for protein drugs were formulated from blends of poly(DL lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) copolymers (Pluronic). The objectives were to achieve uniform release characteristics and improved protein delivery capacity.

METHODS

The water- in oil -in oil emulsion/solvent extraction technique was used for microparticle production.

RESULTS

A protein loading level of over 40% (w/w) was attained in microparticles having a mean diameter of approximately 5 microns. Linear protein release profiles over 25 days in vitro were exhibited by certain blend formulations incorporating hydrophilic Pluronic F127. The release profile tended to plateau after 10 days when the more hydrophobic Pluronic L121 copolymer was used to prepare microparticles. A delivery capacity of 3 micrograms OVA/mg particles/ day was achieved by formulation of microparticles using a 1:2 blend of PLG:Pluronic F127.

CONCLUSIONS

The w/o/o formulation approach in combination with PLG:Pluronic blends shows potential for improving the delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides from microparticulate systems. Novel vaccine formulations are also feasible by incorporation of Pluronic L121 in the microparticles as a co-adjuvant.

Resorbable synthetic polymers as replacements for bone graft

The potential of resorbable synthetic polymers derived from the poly(alpha-hydroxy acids), poly(lactide) and poly(glycolide), to fulfill a role as bone graft substitutes is reviewed. The various elements of the relationship between the degradation behaviour of resorbable implants and polymer synthesis and chain structure, implant morphology, processing and dimensions have been defined. The production of resorbable polymeric implants has been extensively documented so as to provide a wide basis for selection of an appropriate manufacturing technique. The key requirement of implant dimensional stability over the early stages of bone healing is emphasised so as to provide a stable surface on which osteoblasts and/or their precursor cells may migrate and secrete bone matrix. Minimisation of the content of slow resorbing polymers such as poly(L-lactide) is recommended, consistent with retention of an adequate implant degradation characteristic. The review concludes with a summary of alternative resorbable polymers such as the polyphosphazines which are interesting candidate materials for bone repair and reconstruction.

Introducing a selectively biodegradable filament wound arterial prosthesis: a short-term implantation study

This article introduces a new compliant and selectively biodegradable filament wound vascular graft and reports the findings of a short-term implantation study. A basic feature of filament winding is its ability to tailor and better control the mechanical properties of the prosthesis, so that a closer match with the anisotropic properties of native arteries is achieved. The elastomeric vascular grafts comprise poly(ether urethane urea) fibers (Lycra) embedded in a two-component matrix consisting of poly(ether urethane) (Pellethane) and a highly flexible poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(lactic acid) biodegradable segmented copolymer (PELA). Typical tensile modulus values fall in the few megapascals (MPa) range, this being comparable to that of natural arteries. The wound graft exhibits excellent handling and suturability characteristics as well as enhanced burst strength. Furthermore, due to its biodegradable constituent, the prosthesis combines minimal intraoperative blood loss and high healing porosity. The graft displays initially negligible in vitro water permeation, which increases gradually with time. In this short-term study, the prostheses were implanted in the canine carotid, and their biological performance was compared to that of expanded Gore-Tex. The luminal surface of the wound grafts was coated with a thin layer of pseudointima, strongly adhered to the prosthesis surface. Contrasting with the very stiff Gore-Tex grafts, the filament wound prostheses retained their high compliance, being highly pulsatile upon explanation. Histological studies fully corroborated these findings, underscoring the healing properties of these new filament wound vascular prostheses.

Gel casting of resorbable polymers. 2. In-vitro degradation of bone graft substitutes

Gel cast microporous materials produced from: slow resorbing, poly(L-lactide); fast resorbing, 50:50 poly(DL lactide coglycolide); and blends of these polymers have been characterized by weight loss, compression testing and thermal analysis after immersion in phosphate buffered saline (37 degrees C, pH 7.4) for times up to 6 months. Increasing weight loss and reduction in compressive properties with immersion time were measured. Blending reduces the rate of weight loss and material shrinkage relative to the copolymer. Thermal analysis of degraded samples revealed evidence of reorganization of the crystalline phase in poly(L-lactide) and a crystalline component in the 50:50 copolymer, estimated at 5-7% of the original material content, which is probably responsible for gel formation. Thermograms of the blend are effectively a superposition of thermograms of the individual components. Gel casting shows potential for varying the resorption rate, form stability and compressive properties of micro/macroporous bone graft substitutes.