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The Potential of Alternaria Toxins Production by A. alternata in Processing Tomatoes. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120827. [PMID: 36548724 PMCID: PMC9781988 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
As a filamentous and spoilage fungus, Alternaria spp. can not only infect processing tomatoes, but also produce a variety of mycotoxins which harm the health of human beings. To explore the production of Alternaria toxins in processing tomatoes during growth and storage, four main Alternaria toxins and four conjugated toxins were detected by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-ion mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-IMS QToF MS) in processing tomatoes on different days after being inoculated with A. alternata. The results show that the content of Alternaria toxins in an in vivo assay is higher than that under field conditions. Tenuazonic acid (TeA) is the predominant toxin detected in the field (205.86~41,389.19 μg/kg) and in vivo (7.64~526,986.37 μg/kg) experiments, and the second-most abundant toxin is alternariol (AOH). In addition, a small quantity of conjugated toxins, AOH-9-glucoside (AOH-9-Glc) and alternariol monomethyl ether-3-glucoside (AME-3-Glc), were screened in the in vivo experiment. This is the first time the potential of Alternaria toxins produced in tomatoes during the harvest period has been studied in order to provide data for the prevention and control of Alternaria toxins.
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Qiao X, Li G, Zhang J, Du J, Yang Y, Yin J, Li H, Xie J, Jiang Y, Fang X, Dai X, Shao B. Urinary analysis reveals high Alternaria mycotoxins exposure in the general population from Beijing, China. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 118:122-129. [PMID: 35305760 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins are of concern due to its adverse health effect, they affect various cereal crops and grain-based food along with modified forms that contribute to overall exposure. This study aimed to determine the frequency and level of exposure to Alternaria mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid, TeA; alternariol, AOH; alternariol monomethyl ether, AME; tentoxin, TEN; and altenuene, ALT) in human urine from Beijing adults. A total of 2212 urine samples were collected and analyzed for five mycotoxins using LC-ESI-MS/MS. More than 98% of the samples had at least one Alternaria mycotoxin detected. Among the mycotoxins, AME had the highest detection rate (96.0%), followed by TeA (70.5%). The calculated average daily intake values of AME (12.5 ng/kg b.w.) was 5 times the TTC value (2.5 ng/kg b.w.) set by the EFSA, indicating the potential health risks associated with mycotoxins. Immediate attention and subsequent actions should be taken to identify the sources of mycotoxins and the corresponding exposure pathways to humans in the investigated regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Qiao
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Gang Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jing Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Yunjia Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jie Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Hui Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jie Xie
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - You Jiang
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiang Fang
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xinhua Dai
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Bing Shao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China; School of Food and Bioengineering, Xihua University, Chendu 610039, China.
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Chen A, Mao X, Sun Q, Wei Z, Li J, You Y, Zhao J, Jiang G, Wu Y, Wang L, Li Y. Alternaria Mycotoxins: An Overview of Toxicity, Metabolism, and Analysis in Food. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:7817-7830. [PMID: 34250809 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The genus Alternaria is widely distributed in the environment. Numerous species of the genus Alternaria can produce a variety of toxic secondary metabolites, called Alternaria mycotoxins. In this review, natural occurrence, toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods are introduced. The contamination of these toxins in foodstuffs is ubiquitous, and most of these metabolites present genotoxic and cytotoxic effects. Moreover, Alternaria toxins are mainly hydroxylated to catechol metabolites and combined with sulfate and glucuronic acid in in vitro arrays. A more detailed summary of the metabolism of Alternaria toxins is presented in this work. To effectively detect and determine the mycotoxins in food, analytical methods with high sensitivity and good accuracy are also reviewed. This review will guide the formulation of maximum residue limit standards in the future, covering both toxicity and metabolic mechanism of Alternaria toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Chen
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Mao
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Qinghui Sun
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Zixuan Wei
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
| | - Yanli You
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiqiang Zhao
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongning Wu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100017, People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Wang
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
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Gotthardt M, Asam S, Gunkel K, Moghaddam AF, Baumann E, Kietz R, Rychlik M. Quantitation of Six Alternaria Toxins in Infant Foods Applying Stable Isotope Labeled Standards. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:109. [PMID: 30787913 PMCID: PMC6373459 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria fungi are widely distributed saprophytes and plant pathogens. As pathogens, Alternaria fungi infect crops and vegetables and cause losses in the fields and during postharvest storage. While farmers suffer from declining yields, consumers are endangered by the formation of secondary metabolites, because some of these exhibit a pronounced toxicological potential. The evaluation of the toxicological capabilities is still ongoing and will contribute to a valid risk assessment. Additionally, data on the incidence and the quantity of Alternaria mycotoxins found in food products is necessary for dietary exposure evaluations. A sensitive LC-MS/MS method for the determination of the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME), tentoxin (TEN), altertoxin I (ATX I), alterperylenol (ALTP), and tenuazonic acid (TA) was developed. AOH, AME, and TA were quantified using stable-isotopically labeled standards. TEN, ATX I, and ALTP were determined using matrix matched calibration. The developed method was validated by using starch and fresh tomato matrix and resulted in limits of detection ranging from 0.05 to 1.25 μg/kg for starch (as a model for cereals) and from 0.01 to 1.36 μg/kg for fresh tomatoes. Limits of quantification were determined between 0.16 and 4.13 μg/kg for starch and between 0.02 and 5.56 μg/kg for tomatoes. Recoveries varied between 83 and 108% for starch and between 95 and 111% for tomatoes. Intra-day precisions were below 4% and inter-day precisions varied from 3 to 8% in both matrices. Various cereal based infant foods, jars containing vegetables and fruits as well as tomato products for infants were analyzed for Alternaria mycotoxin contamination (n = 25). TA was the most frequently determined mycotoxin and was detected in much higher contents than the other toxins. AME and TEN were quantified in many samples, but in low concentrations, whereas AOH, ATX I, and ALTP were determined rarely, among which AOH had higher concentration. Some infant food products were highly contaminated with Alternaria mycotoxins and the consumption of these individual products might pose a risk to the health of infants. However, when the mean or median is considered, no toxicological risk was obvious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Gotthardt
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Stefan Asam
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Klara Gunkel
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Atefeh Fooladi Moghaddam
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.,National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elisabeth Baumann
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Roland Kietz
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
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Estiarte N, Crespo-Sempere A, Marín S, Ramos A, Worobo R. Stability of alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether during food processing of tomato products. Food Chem 2018; 245:951-957. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.11.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Does the Host Contribute to Modulation of Mycotoxin Production by Fruit Pathogens? Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9090280. [PMID: 28895896 PMCID: PMC5618213 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Storage of freshly harvested fruit is a key factor in modulating their supply for several months after harvest; however, their quality can be reduced by pathogen attack. Fruit pathogens may infect their host through damaged surfaces, such as mechanical injuries occurring during growing, harvesting, and packing, leading to increased colonization as the fruit ripens. Of particular concern are fungal pathogens that not only macerate the host tissue but also secrete significant amounts of mycotoxins. Many studies have described the importance of physiological factors, including stage of fruit development, biochemical factors (ripening, C and N content), and environmental factors (humidity, temperature, water deficit) on the occurrence of mycotoxins. However, those factors usually show a correlative effect on fungal growth and mycotoxin accumulation. Recent reports have suggested that host factors can induce fungal metabolism, leading to the synthesis and accumulation of mycotoxins. This review describes the new vision of host-factor impact on the regulation of mycotoxin biosynthetic gene clusters underlying the complex regulation of mycotoxin accumulation in ripening fruit.
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Meena M, Zehra A, Swapnil P, Dubey MK, Patel CB, Upadhyay RS. Effect on lycopene, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and phenolic content in tomato fruits infected by Alternaria alternataand its toxins (TeA, AOH and AME). ARCHIVES OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY AND PLANT PROTECTION 2017; 50:317-329. [DOI: 10.1080/03235408.2017.1312769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
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Estiarte N, Crespo-Sempere A, Marín S, Sanchis V, Ramos A. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on the development of black mold disease and its potential effect on alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether biosynthesis on tomatoes infected with Alternaria alternata. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 236:74-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Janić Hajnal E, Orčić D, Torbica A, Kos J, Mastilović J, Škrinjar M. Alternariatoxins in wheat from the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia: a preliminary survey. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:361-70. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1007533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Brzonkalik K, Hümmer D, Syldatk C, Neumann A. Influence of pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio on mycotoxin production by Alternaria alternata in submerged cultivation. AMB Express 2012; 2:28. [PMID: 22608165 PMCID: PMC3441619 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-2-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Production of the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by Alternaria alternata DSM 12633 was influenced by pH and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the growth medium both in shaking flasks and bioreactor cultivation. The impact of medium pH on mycotoxin production was studied in the range of pH 3.5 - 8. pH values above 5.5 led to a decreased mycotoxin production or inhibited mycotoxin formation completely whereas an acidic pH in the range of 4.0-4.5 was optimal for mycotoxin production. The influence of the C:N ratio was evaluated over the range of 24 to 96. Glucose was used as carbon source and its concentration was altered while nitrogen concentration was kept constant. Growth kinetics and mycotoxin production parameters were studied depending on different C:N ratios. With increasing initial glucose concentration fungal biomass did increase but the maximum specific growth rate was not influenced. The optimal initial C:N ratio for attaining highest mycotoxin concentrations was 72. A higher C:N ratio did not further enhance mycotoxin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Brzonkalik
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Dominik Hümmer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Syldatk
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anke Neumann
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
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11
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Scientific Opinion on the risks for animal and public health related to the presence ofAlternariatoxins in feed and food. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Denis O, Van Cauwenberge A, Treutens G, Es Saadi B, Symoens F, Popovic N, Huygen K. Characterization of new Alternaria alternata--specific rat monoclonal antibodies. Mycopathologia 2011; 173:151-62. [PMID: 21892786 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-011-9466-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, three different rat hybridoma cell lines secreting monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) recognizing the spores from Alternaria alternata, a plant pathogenic fungus, contaminant of food products and important cause of both allergic rhinitis and asthma, have been characterized. These three mAbs are all of IgM isotype. Two antibodies, A1 and F10, were cross-reactive antibodies recognizing spores from Alternaria, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Stachybotrys genera, but not the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Candida albicans. Competitive and sandwich assays demonstrated that these two mAbs were directed against the same or very close repetitive(s) epitope(s). A1-based sandwich ELISA efficiently detected this epitope in various mould (but not yeast)-soluble extracts prepared from strains grown in the laboratory. Moreover, this A1-based sandwich ELISA detected its cognate epitope in air and dust samples obtained from dwellings. The third antibody, E5, recognized only the spores of Alternaria and the phylogenetically very close Ulocladium botrytis. This E5 antibody is directed against a repetitive epitope found in Alternaria and Ulocladium laboratory extracts and can be used in a sandwich assay for the quantification of these moulds. Therefore, E5 antibody is a promising tool for the development of Alternaria-Ulocladium-specific immunoassays, while A1 and F10 could be interesting tools for the quantification of the total mould biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Denis
- Program Allergology, Scientific Service Immunology, Scientific Institute of Public Health, WIV-ISP, Brussels, Belgium.
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Brzonkalik K, Herrling T, Syldatk C, Neumann A. The influence of different nitrogen and carbon sources on mycotoxin production in Alternaria alternata. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 147:120-6. [PMID: 21496935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the influence of different carbon and nitrogen sources on the production of the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by Alternaria alternata at 28°C using a semi-synthetic medium (modified Czapek-Dox broth) supplemented with nitrogen and carbon sources. Additionally the effect of shaken and static cultivation on mycotoxin production was tested. Initial experiments showed a clear dependency between nitrogen depletion and mycotoxin production. To assess whether nitrogen limitation in general or the type of nitrogen source triggers the production, various nitrogen sources including several ammonium/nitrate salts and amino acids were tested. In static culture the production of AOH/AME can be enhanced greatly with phenylalanine whereas some nitrogen sources seem to inhibit the AOH/AME production completely. TA was not significantly affected by the choice of nitrogen source. In shaken culture the overall production of all mycotoxins was lower compared to static cultivation. Furthermore tests with a wide variety of carbon sources including monosaccharides, disaccharides, complex saccharides such as starch as well as glycerol and acetate were performed. In shaken culture AOH was produced when glucose, fructose, sucrose, acetate or mixtures of glucose/sucrose and glucose/acetate were used as carbon sources. AME production was not detected. The use of sodium acetate resulted in the highest AOH production. In static culture AOH production was also stimulated by acetate and the amount is comparable to shaken conditions. Under static conditions production of AOH was lower except when cultivated with acetate. In static cultivation 9 of 14 tested carbon sources induced mycotoxin production compared to 4 in shaken culture. This is the first study which analyses the influence of carbon and nitrogen sources in a semi-synthetic medium and assesses the effects of culture conditions on mycotoxin production by A. alternata.
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Asam S, Konitzer K, Schieberle P, Rychlik M. Stable isotope dilution assays of alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether in beverages. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:5152-5160. [PMID: 19530709 DOI: 10.1021/jf900450w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Stable isotope dilution assays (SIDAs) for the determination of the most important mycotoxins of the black mold Alternaria, namely, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether, have been developed. For this purpose, deuterated alternariol and alternariol methyl ether were synthesized by palladium catalyzed protium-deuterium exchange from the unlabeled toxins. Reaction conditions were chosen in such a manner that the formation of the [(2)H(4)]-isotopologues was favored. The synthesized products were characterized by LC-MS, NMR, and UV-spectroscopy. On the basis of the use of [(2)H(4)]-alternariol and [(2)H(4)]-alternariol methyl ether as internal standards, SIDAs were developed and applied to the determination of alternariol and alternariol methyl ether in beverages using LC-MS/MS. Method validation revealed a high sensitivity, i.e., low limits of detection (alternariol, 0.03 microg/kg; alternariol methyl ether, 0.01 microg/kg) and limits of quantitation (alternariol, 0.09 microg/kg; alternariol methyl ether, 0.03 microg/kg), respectively. Recovery from spiked apple juice was 100.5 +/- 3.4% for alternariol (range 0.1-1 microg/kg) and 107.3 +/- 1.6% for alternariol methyl ether (range 0.05-0.5 microg/kg). Interassay precision (expressed as coefficient of variation, CEV) for alternariol was 4.0% (7.82 +/- 0.31 microg/kg; vegetable juice, naturally contaminated) and 4.6% (1.04 +/- 0.05 microg/kg; grape juice, naturally contaminated). For alternariol methyl ether, a CEV of 2.3% (0.79 +/- 0.02 microg/kg; vegetable juice, naturally contaminated) was obtained. Analysis of fruit juices showed low contamination with alternariol and alternariol methyl ether in general, but higher values of both toxins were found in wine and vegetable juices. The values for alternariol were higher than those for alternariol methyl ether in nearly any case. However, the developed SIDA has proven to be optimally suited for further studies on alternariol and alternariol methyl ether content in food samples to obtain further insight into possible health hazards for the consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Asam
- Technische Universität München, Lehrstuhl für Lebensmittelchemie, Garching, Germany
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Ostry V. Alternaria mycotoxins: an overview of chemical characterization, producers, toxicity, analysis and occurrence in foodstuffs. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2008. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.x013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Microfungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous pathogens and saprophytes. Many species of the genus Alternaria commonly cause spoilage of various food crops in the field or post-harvest decay. Due to their growth even at low temperatures, they are also responsible for spoilage of these commodities during refrigerated transport and storage. Several Alternaria species are known producers of toxic secondary metabolites - Alternaria mycotoxins. A. alternata produces a number of mycotoxins, including alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, altertoxins I, II, III, tenuazonic acid and other less toxic metabolites. Tenuazonic acid is toxic to several animal species, e.g. mice, chicken, dogs. Alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene and altertoxin I are not very acutely toxic. There are several reports on the mutagenicity and genotoxicity of alternariol, and alternariol monomethyl ether. Alternariol has been identified as a topoisomerase I and II poison which might contribute to the impairment of DNA integrity in human colon carcinoma cells. Analytical methods to determine Alternaria toxins are largely based on procedures, involving cleanup by solvent partitioning or solid phase extraction, followed by chromatographic separation techniques, in combination with ultraviolet, fluorescence, electrochemical and mass spectroscopic detection. A large number of Alternaria metabolites has been reported to occur naturally in food commodities (e.g. fruit, vegetables, cereals and oil plants). Alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid were frequently detected in apples, apple products, mandarins, olives, pepper, red pepper, tomatoes, tomato products, oilseed rape meal, sunflower seeds, sorghum, wheat and edible oils. Alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether were detected in citrus fruit, Japanese pears, prune nectar, raspberries, red currant, carrots, barley and oats. Alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid were detected in melon. Natural occurrence of alternariol has been reported in apple juice, cranberry juice, grape juice, prune nectar, raspberry juice, red wine and lentils.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Ostry
- National Institute of Public Health, Centre for Hygiene of Food Chains, National Reference Centre for Microfungi and Mycotoxins in Food Chains, Palackeho 3a, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic
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Andersen B, Frisvad JC. Natural occurrence of fungi and fungal metabolites in moldy tomatoes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2004; 52:7507-7513. [PMID: 15675796 DOI: 10.1021/jf048727k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Fresh tomatoes, homegrown and from supermarkets, with developing fungal lesions were collected. Each lesion was sampled, and the resulting fungal cultures were identified morphologically and extracted for analyzes of secondary metabolites. The tomatoes were incubated at 25 degrees C for a week, extracted, and analyzed for fungal metabolites. Extracts from pure cultures were compared with extracts from the moldy tomatoes and fungal metabolite standards in two HPLC systems with DAD and FLD detection. The results showed that Penicillium tularense, Stemphylium eturmiunum, and S. cf. lycopersici were postharvest spoilers of fresh tomatoes. The results also showed that P. tularense could produce janthitrems, paspalinine, paxilline, and 3-O-acetoxypaxilline, that S. cf. lycopersici could produce stemphols, and that S. eturmiunum could produce infectopyrone and macrosporin when grown in pure culture. This study is the first to report on the detection of tentoxin, paxillines, janthitrems, verrucolone, infectopyrone, macrosporin, and stemphols in naturally contaminated tomatoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitte Andersen
- Mycology Group, Center for Microbial Biotechnology, BioCentrum-DTU, Søltofts Plads, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Lau BPY, Scott PM, Lewis DA, Kanhere SR, Cléroux C, Roscoe VA. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry of the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether in fruit juices and beverages. J Chromatogr A 2003; 998:119-31. [PMID: 12862378 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00606-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) are among the main mycotoxins formed in apples and other fruits infected by Alternaria alternata. For determination of AOH and AME by LC, apple juice and other fruit beverages were cleaned up on C18 and aminopropyl solid-phase extraction columns. Positive and negative ion mass spectra of AOH and AME under electrospray (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) conditions were obtained. Collision-induced dissociation of the [M+H]+ and [M-H]- ions for both compounds were also studied. The phenolic anions of both compounds are more stable with less fragmentation. In quantitative analysis, negative ion detection also offers lower background and better sensitivity. Sensitive LC-MS and LC-MS-MS confirmatory procedures based on APCI with negative ion detection were applied to confirm the natural occurrence of AOH in nine samples of apple juice and in single samples of some other clear fruit beverages--grape juice, cranberry nectar, raspberry juice, red wine, and prune nectar (which also contained 1.4 ng AME/ml)--at levels of up to 6 ng AOH/ml. Electrospray LC-MS-MS with negative ion detection and in multiple reaction monitoring mode offers higher sensitivity and specificity. Absolute detection was better than 4 pg per injection for both compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin P Y Lau
- Food Research Division, Health Canada, Address Locator 2203D, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0L2, Canada.
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Chapter 10 HPLC methods for the determination of mycotoxins and phycotoxins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0167-9244(00)80016-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Delgado T, Gómez-Cordovés C. Natural occurrence of alternariol and alternariol methyl ether in Spanish apple juice concentrates. J Chromatogr A 1998; 815:93-7. [PMID: 9718710 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(98)00124-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A limited survey of 32 samples of apple juice concentrates, destined for the production of commercial juices, was carried out in order to evaluate the natural occurrence of the Alternaria metabolites alternariol and alternariol methyl ether. A high-performance liquid chromatographic method based on solid-phase extraction columns for extraction and purification of the toxins was used. Both mycotoxins were found as natural contaminants in 50% of the samples analyzed. Levels of alternariol were in the range 1.35-5.42 ng/ml. Alternariol methyl ether was present in most cases only at trace levels, and the highest amount detected was 1.71 ng/ml in one sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Delgado
- Instituto de Fermentaciones Industriales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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Delgado T, Gómez-Cordovés C, Scott PM. Determination of alternariol and alternariol methyl ether in apple juice using solid-phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1996; 731:109-14. [PMID: 8646326 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(95)01200-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The present work describes a new method for determination of alternariol (AOH) and alternariol methyl ether (AME) in apple juice using solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns for extraction and cleanup of samples for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Chromatograms of spiked samples show that both toxins can be easily detected without interferences, and good recoveries for AOH (82.8 +/- 7.4%) and AME (91.9 +/- 6.1%) with detection limits as low as 1.6 and 0.7 micrograms/l, respectively, were obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Delgado
- Instituto Fermentaciones Industriales, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain
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Chapter 8 Hplc Methods For The Determination Of Mycotoxins And Phycotoxins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0167-9244(08)70128-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Frisvad J, Thrane U. Chapter 8 Liquid Column Chromatography of Mycotoxins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0301-4770(08)60568-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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