A functional analysis of binge-eating

Eating to Feel Better: The Role of Comfort Eating in Chronic Pain

Research has identified that individuals with chronic pain comfort eat in response to their pain, however, little is known about the function that comfort eating serves for chronic pain patients. Given the synergistic relationship between higher body weight and chronic pain, it is important to further understand the role and impact of eating behaviours, such as comfort eating, for individuals with chronic pain. This study aimed to investigate the perceived function of pain-induced comfort eating for chronic pain sufferers. Adult participants (N = 141) with chronic pain were recruited through online advertisements. Participants completed self-report questions on an online survey platform. Over two-thirds of the sample identified with engaging in comfort eating in response to chronic pain flare-ups. Results revealed that the most endorsed function of pain-induced comfort eating was 'to have a pleasant experience' (51.8%), followed by 'distraction' (49.6%) and 'to reduce emotions' (39%). This study provides further evidence that comfort eating is common amongst individuals with chronic pain and sheds light on the perceived function of comfort eating for those who are managing chronic pain. Given the potential impact on outcomes for chronic pain patients, future studies should further investigate the relationship between comfort eating and chronic pain.

Psychological differences in food addiction and binge eating in a general Polish population

The aim of the study was to identify the prevalence of food addiction (FA) and binge eating (BE) in a general Polish population, to explore the differences between these constructs, and to examine psychological differences among FA, BE, and FA + BE groups. 2123 participants completed the questionnaires: Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0, Binge Eating Scale, The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5, Life Events Checklist, Adverse Childhood Experiences, Short UPPS-P scale (impulsive traits), Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale - 21 items. 492 participants reported clinically significant symptoms of FA, BE, or both. Spearman's correlations, Mann-Whitney U tests, and Kruskal-Wallis tests were performed to examine the relationships between variables. The present study showed that FA and BE symptoms are common in the adult sample. The FA, BE and FA + BE groups had higher scores than the control group for all variables included in the study. The FA + BE group presented a significantly higher level of behavioral and emotional symptoms, followed by the FA and the BE group with less severity of symptoms. This study supports the hypothesis of food addiction as a similar construct to BE. FA is a broader concept than BE, but individuals experiencing both indicated the greatest functional difficulties.

Development and preliminary validation of a modified Food Craving Inventory for Pregnancy (FCI-P) in U.S. military active-duty Service women

Food cravings during pregnancy are highly common, yet no measure of cravings has been validated among pregnant women. The current study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Food Craving Inventory (FCI) for use during pregnancy. U.S. military active-duty Service women (N = 192; 29.5 ± 3.8 years old; 44% Army, 36% Air Force, 15% Navy, and 4% Marine Corps) were recruited from the community at 12-27 weeks' gestation. Participants completed a modified version of the FCI validated for adults with binge-eating disorder, which included 13 additional items assessing cravings for foods that women commonly report experiencing during pregnancy (e.g., pickles, sour cream, hot or spicy wings). Additional measures also assessed disinhibited eating behaviors (i.e., loss of control eating and emotional eating). A series of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine model fit for a four-factor structure of: (1) the FCI validated for binge-eating disorder (excluding the pregnancy-oriented food items) and (2) the FCI modified for pregnancy (with the pregnancy-oriented food items added). The previously validated four-factor structure of the FCI for binge-eating disorder demonstrated poor model fit in the current sample of pregnant women. After examining the structure of the FCI modified for pregnancy, several items were removed due to high cross-loading across multiple subscales. The resulting 16-item, four-factor (Fats, Sweets, Carbohydrates, Spicy/Strong foods) FCI for pregnancy (FCI-P) demonstrated generally good model fit (CFI = .95, TLI = .94, SRMR = .04, RMSEA = .09) and good-to-excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas: .83-.96). Convergent validity was supported by significant correlations between the FCI-P scores and the disinhibited eating behavior scores (ps < .001). Results highlight the importance of psychometrically evaluating eating-related measures for use during pregnancy to appropriately capture the potentially unique experiences of the perinatal period.

Preferences for coaching strategies in a personalized virtual coach for emotional eaters: an explorative study

Objectives

Emotional eating is recognized as a potential contributor to weight gain. Emotional eaters often hide their problems because of feelings of shame about their behavior, making it challenging to provide them with the necessary support. The introduction of a virtual coach might offer a potential solution in assisting them. To find out whether emotional eaters are receptive to online personalized coaching, we presented emotional eaters with two essential proto-typical problem situations for emotional eaters: "experiencing cravings" and "after giving in to cravings," and asked them whether they preferred one of the three coaching strategies presented: Validating, Focus-on-Change and Dialectical.

Methods

An experimental vignette study (2 × 3 design) was carried out. The vignettes featured two distinct personas, each representing one of the two common problem scenarios experienced by emotional eaters, along with three distinct coaching strategies for each scenario. To identify potential predictors for recognition of problem situations, questionnaires on emotional eating (DEBQ), personality traits (Big-5), well-being (PANAS), and BMI were administrated.

Results

A total of 62% of the respondents identified themselves with "after giving in to cravings" and 47% with "experiencing cravings." BMI, emotional eating and emotional stability appeared to be predictors in recognizing both the problem situations. In "experiencing cravings," the participating women preferred Dialectical and the Validation coaching strategies. In the "after giving in to cravings" condition, they revealed a preference for the Dialectical and the Focus-on-Change coaching strategies.

Conclusion

Using vignettes allowed a less threatening way of bringing up sensitive topics for emotional eaters. The personas representing the problem situations were reasonably well recognized. To further enhance this recognition, it is important for the design and content of the personas to be even more closely related to the typical problem scenarios of emotional eaters, rather than focusing on physical characteristics or social backgrounds. This way, users may be less distracted by these factors. With the knowledge gained about the predictors that may influence recognition of the problem situations, design for coaching can be more customized. The participants represented individuals with high emotional eating levels, enhancing external validity.

The role of positive self-compassion, distress tolerance, and social problem-solving in the relationship between perfectionism and disordered eating among racially and ethnically diverse college students

Eating disorders (EDs) are associated with high levels of distress, functional impairment, and morbidity. Perfectionism has been consistently identified as an important factor in the etiology and maintenance of disordered eating, and as a promising target for treatment efforts. To address the detrimental effects of perfectionism on disordered eating, further research is needed to better understand what mechanisms may influence the relationship between these variables. In the present research, we examined three constructs related to self-regulation as potential mediators of the relationship between perfectionism and disordered eating: positive self-compassion, distress tolerance, and social problem-solving. We collected data from a sample of racially and ethnically diverse undergraduate students (N = 280) using an online questionnaire battery. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we developed measurement and structural models to meet criteria for good fit and tested the hypothesized relationships. Distress tolerance emerged as a robust, statistically significant mediator of the relationship between perfectionism and disordered eating. Social problem-solving and self-compassion did not mediate this relationship. Distress tolerance may counterbalance the cognitive load associated with perfectionism; freeing up mental resources to focus on resisting urges for immediate relief through engagement in maladaptive disordered eating.

The transdiagnostic role of food craving: An application of substance use models

Food craving is a transdiagnostic process underlying clinically significant disordered eating behaviors and eating disorder diagnoses. However, the lack of literature examining the role of food craving as it relates to the full spectrum of disordered eating behaviors, including restrictive eating and compensatory behaviors, may be due to the traditional definition of food craving as the desire to consume particular foods. Applying motivational models of substance use craving to food craving may help to explain inconsistencies within existing literature. Three motivational models of craving from the substance use literature may be particularly applicable to (1) provide a clear definition of food craving as a motivational process, (2) understand the role of that motivational process as it underlies the full spectrum of disordered eating behavioral patterns, (3) provide insight for the most appropriate ways in which to accurately assess food craving, and (4) establish ways in which food craving may represent a useful motivational process to target in eating disorder treatments. This narrative review describes three models of substance use craving and provides suggestions for utilizing motivational models to understand the transdiagnostic role of food craving as it relates to the full spectrum of disordered eating behaviors in both research and clinical work.

The effectiveness of dual-task interventions for modulating emotional memories in the laboratory: A meta-analysis

Dual-tasks (e.g., making horizontal eye-movements) while recollecting a memory are often used both in the lab and the clinic (such as in EMDR therapy) to attenuate emotional memories and intrusive mental images. According to working memory theory, dual-task interventions are effective because they limit cognitive resources available for the processing of emotional memories. However, there is still ongoing debate about the extent to which and under what conditions dual-task interventions are effective to interfere with emotional memories. In this meta-analysis, we assessed k = 53 laboratory studies investigating the effects of dual-task interventions on negative and positive memories. The effects were measured with the raw mean reduction in vividness and emotionality self-report ratings of emotional memories before compared to after the intervention on 100-point rating scales. Results showed that the dual-task interventions made both negative and positive memories less vivid (mean reduction negative images = 9.18, 95% CI [7.06, 11.29]; mean reduction positive images = 11.73, 95% CI [8.59, 14.86]) and less emotional (mean reduction negative images = 6.22, 95% CI [4.50, 7.94]; mean reduction positive images = 6.71, 95% CI [2.21, 11.20]). Several moderators were tested and are discussed in the light of working memory theory.

Characterising binge eating over the course of a feasibility trial among individuals with binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa

Binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa are eating disorders that are characterized by recurrent binge eating episodes. The highly contextualized nature of binge eating makes naturalistic research a particularly suitable means of understanding the context within which binge eating occurs. The present study aimed to characterise binge eating days with regards to the frequency and probability of negative affect, food craving, meal skipping, and dietary restriction. In addition, it aimed to examine whether a combined intervention that targets the experience of 'loss of control' over eating can decrease these potential maintenance factors that often precede binge eating episodes. Seventy-eight participants with bulimia nervosa (N = 40) or binge eating disorder (n = 38), who were randomly allocated to a food-specific or general intervention combining inhibitory control training and implementation intentions, completed mood and food diaries over four weeks. Results suggest that negative affect and food craving were elevated on binge eating days, but that dietary restraint and meal skipping did not characterise binge eating days. Moreover, meal skipping, binge eating, restriction, and compensation decreased throughout the intervention period, while negative affect and food craving did not. This suggests that some interventions may successfully reduce binge eating frequency without necessarily decreasing negative affect or food craving, thus pointing to the different routes to targeting binge eating and providing implications for future interventions.

Self-esteem and binge eating: Do patients with binge eating disorder endorse more negatively worded items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale?

OBJECTIVE

Self-esteem is a core aspect of eating disorder symptomatology. This study aims to examine whether method effects associated with negatively worded items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) may interact the negative self-evaluations experienced by patients with obesity and binge eating disorder (BED). We also examined whether negatively worded items were associated with psychological distress and eating symptoms.

METHOD

Five hundred thirty three female outpatients (mean age: 42.59) with BED (n = 160) or obesity without BED (n = 373) completed the RSES and measures of interpersonal problems, psychological distress, and eating symptoms.

RESULTS

Patients with BED responded more strongly to the negatively worded items of the RSES than those with obesity. The RSES negatively worded item factor was negatively associated with higher interpersonal problems, psychological distress, and binge eating.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with BED may be more responsive to negatively phrased items on the RSES consistent with their negative self-evaluations and self-perceptions.

Food is special by itself: Neither valence, arousal, food appeal, nor caloric content modulate the attentional bias induced by food images

When food cues appear in a visual context, such information is likely to influence eating behavior by enhancing attention for food cues. We investigated whether active but task-irrelevant information could modulate the attentional bias for food stimuli using a novel paradigm in which participants were purposely deceived by being enrolled in a memory experiment. A set of images were first held in working memory and then used as task-irrelevant distractors in a subsequent single target rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task, allowing us to investigate the attentional blink (AB) effect elicited by those images. In Experiment 1, the results revealed that food images elicited a larger AB effect than nonfood images. In three follow-up experiments, we investigated whether valence or arousal (Experiment 2), food preparation (Experiment 3), or food caloric content (Experiment 4) were factors related to the attentional bias for food. Overall, our results demonstrated that when held in working memory, food images can easily capture attention, even in circumstances in which the information retained in memory is irrelevant to solve the task, as indicated by the strong correlation found between items that were recognized in the RSVP task and the AB effect. Nonetheless, none of the food-related properties we examined were found to be associated with this attentional bias for food.

Is self-compassion relevant to the pathology and treatment of eating and body image concerns? A systematic review and meta-analysis

Eating disorders are severe mental health conditions, with substantial consequences for health and quality of life. Such disorders are strongly associated with body image concerns. It is important to consider treatments that might enhance our ability to treat such cases. Recently, there has been a growing body of research on self-compassion in relation to such problems. However, we are not yet clear about the extent of such effects, given the range of studies and methodologies used. Therefore, a systematic literature review was carried out using four key databases. Meta-analysis was used to reach conclusions about the size of the effects and moderators. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted with 59 studies. Higher self-compassion was associated with lower eating pathology, reduced body image concerns, and greater positive body image, with medium to strong effect sizes (respectively, r = -0.34, r = -0.45, r = 0.52). Furthermore, self-compassion interventions for eating pathology and body image were effective, and superior to control groups (respectively, g = 0.58, g = 0.39). These findings support the role of self-compassion in understanding and addressing eating and body image concerns. Self-compassion appears to be an adaptive emotion regulation strategy in eating disorders and body image.

Examining the distinctiveness of body image concerns in patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the distinctiveness of specific constructs of body-image disturbance in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN). We compared weight/shape dissatisfaction, weight/shape overvaluation, weight/shape preoccupation, and fear of weight gain in patients with AN and BN and examined how each specific body-image construct relates to clinical measures within and between AN and BN.

METHOD

A clinical sample of 490 treatment-seeking patients diagnosed with DSM-5 AN (N = 310) or BN (N = 180) by clinicians using structured interviews in Portugal completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire to assess body image and eating-disorder (ED) psychopathology.

RESULTS

Both within and between AN and BN, the four body-image constructs varied in their strengths of association among themselves, with ED psychopathology, and body mass index (BMI). Analyses revealed considerable variability in variance accounted for in clinical measures by body-image constructs. Body-image constructs predicted significant, albeit small, variance in BMI within BN (dissatisfaction, preoccupation significant) but not within AN. Body-image constructs predicted significant, albeit small, variance in the frequencies of binge eating and purging in AN (with preoccupation significant for both and fear for purging) but not within BN. Body-image constructs predicted significant variance in ED psychopathology (large amounts of variance for Eating Concern and Restraint) within both AN and BN (with overvaluation, preoccupation, and fear significant).

CONCLUSION

Clinical manifestations of body-image disturbances are complex and show important differences across AN and BN. Understanding distinctions and differential salience of different body-image constructs across different EDs can inform refinement of specific case conceptualization.

Psychological Meanings of Eating Disorders and Their Association With Symptoms, Motivation Toward Treatment, and Clinical Evolution Among Outpatients

Unlike patients suffering from egodystonic disorders, people with eating disorders sometimes attribute positive meanings to their symptoms, and this attribution process contributes to the maintenance of the disorder. This study aims at exploring psychological meanings of eating disorders and their associations with symptoms, motivation toward treatment, and clinical evolution. Eighty-one adults with an eating disorder (anorexia nervosa, n = 46 and bulimia nervosa, n = 35) treated in a day-hospital program were asked, each week over an 8-week period, to identify the psychological meanings they ascribed to their eating disorder. Avoidance was the most frequently identified meaning, followed by mental strength, security, death, confidence, identity, care, and communication. Avoidance was more frequently mentioned by participants with bulimia than in cases of anorexia. Security and mental strength were associated with less motivation toward treatment. Death was associated with more depressive and anxious symptoms. An exploratory factor analysis showed that these meanings formed three main dimensions: Avoidance, Intrapsychic, and Relational. Findings suggest that psychological meanings associated with eating disorders can be assessed and used as a clinical tool to increase treatment acceptability and effectiveness.

Does occupational distress raise the risk of alcohol use, binge-eating, ill health and sleep problems among medical doctors? A UK cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to assess the prevalence of health problems (eg, insomnia, binge-eating, substance use and ill health) among UK doctors and to investigate whether occupational distress increases the risk of health problems.

DESIGN

This study reports the analysis of data collected at the baseline stage of a randomised controlled trial (protocol #NCT02838290).

SETTING

Doctors were invited through medical Royal Colleges, the British Medical Association's research panel and a random selection of NHS trusts across various UK regions.

PARTICIPANTS

417 UK doctors with an equivalent split of gender (48% males) and seniority (49% consultants).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Outcomes were sleep problems (eg, insomnia), alcohol/drug use (eg, binge-drinking), ill health (eg, backache) and binge-eating (eg, uncontrollable eating). Predictor variables were occupational distress (psychiatric morbidity, burnout, job effort, work-life imbalance, coping with stress through self-blame or substances) and work factors (workplace and years practising medicine).

RESULTS

44% of doctors binge-drank and 5% met the criteria for alcohol dependence; 24%-29% experienced negative emotions after overeating and 8% had a binge-eating disorder; 20%-61% had some type of sleep problem and 12% had severe/moderate insomnia; 69% had fatigue and 19%-29% experienced other types of ill health problems. The results show that occupational distress and job factors increase the odds of doctors using substances, having sleep problems, presenting with frequent symptoms of ill health and binge-eating. For example, burnout increased the risk of all types of sleep problems, eg, difficulty falling/staying asleep, insomnia (OR ≥1.344; p≤0.036). Even taking into consideration whether or not a doctor works in a hospital, the risk of health problems still rises when doctors have signs of occupational distress.

CONCLUSION

Early recognition of occupational distress can prevent health problems among UK doctors that can reduce the quality of patient care because of sickness-related absence.

Body compassion safeguards against the impact of major life events on binge eating

Body compassion is a fresh construct that incorporates two multidimensional concepts: body image and self-compassion. Although self-compassion has revealed a protective role against body image and eating-related problems (e.g., binge eating), the study of this specific compassionate competence focused on body image is still largely unexplored. The present study aimed to test two moderation models which hypothesized that body compassion moderates the impacts of (i) the cumulative number and (ii) negative appraisal of major life events on binge eating behaviours, in a sample of 458 women from the Portuguese general population. Results showed that body compassion was negatively associated with major life events and binge eating. Moderation analysis results demonstrated the moderator effect of body compassion on the relationship between major life events (both cumulative number and negative appraisal) and binge eating, accounting for 34% and 33% of the variance of binge eating, respectively. The moderator effect of body compassion was confirmed to low to medium levels of body compassion and, overall, results seem to suggest that, for the same levels of major life events (in number or negative appraisal), women who present higher body compassion present less binge eating symptoms. Although these data are preliminary and need support from a longitudinal design research, current findings appear to be promising by suggesting the relevance of promoting body compassion in prevention and treatment programs for disordered eating attitudes and behaviours.

Binge Eating and Loss of Control in College-Age Women

BACKGROUND

Loss of control (LOC) over eating is a cardinal feature of the DSM-5 definition of binge eating (BE). While this behavior is frequently reported in college-age women, there is limited research on descriptions of loss of control from first-person accounts from individuals reporting LOC associated with BE.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate descriptions of LOC associated with BE episodes in college-age women who reported recent BE behavior.

STUDY DESIGN

A secondary analysis of previously collected qualitative data on BE behaviors in college students was conducted. Two hundred and twenty-one college-age women's (age = 19.77 ± 1.03) comments regarding the experiences of LOC associated with BE episodes were analyzed using conventional content analysis. Codes were inductively generated allowing categories to emerge from the data codes.

RESULTS

Three major overarching descriptive categories were identified: (1) LOC over eating, (2) feelings associated with the LOC, and (3) cognitive dispositions (thoughts) associated with LOC during a BE episode.

DISCUSSION

The findings of this study expand the current literature on LOC over eating and provide a number of potential targets for intervention with college-age women who report BE behaviors.

Processes and pathways to binge eating: development of an integrated cognitive and behavioural model of binge eating

BACKGROUND

There are a number of factors commonly believed to be important to the development and maintenance of binge eating that have been identified across multiple models and theories in the psychological literature. In the present study, we sought to develop and test a psychological model for binge eating that incorporated the main variables identified in the literature to drive binge eating behaviour; specifically, core low self-esteem, negative affect, difficulty with emotional regulation, restricted eating and beliefs about eating.

METHODS

Questionnaire data was collected from 760 unselected participants. The proposed model of binge eating was developed, bivariate relationships between the included variables were assessed, and the goodness-of-fit of this new model was evaluated using structural equations modelling.

RESULT

The results identified significant bivariate relationships between all the included variables. While the originally proposed model did not provide a good fit to the data, the revised version of the model provided a good fit to the data.

CONCLUSIONS

Supporting, integrating and building upon the current existing psychological models of binge eating, this study presents a new integrated cognitive and behavioural model of binge eating. The dual-pathway to binge eating identified in the new model provides a different way to understand transdiagnostic binge eating.

A Systematic Review of Physical Activity Interventions in Individuals with Binge Eating Disorders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Our systematic review aims to assess the overall evidence available in the literature regarding the role of physical activity (PA) in individuals with binge eating disorder (BED) and better understand the potential underlying mechanisms of action.

RECENT FINDINGS

Currently, the most effective and well-established psychological treatment for BED is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with a remission rate around 80%. CBT is sometimes combined with pharmacotherapy targeting comorbidities associated with BED, such as obesity and depression. Another avenue of treatment that has been less studied is PA. It has been suggested that PA addresses the underlying mechanisms of BED and, thus, increases treatment efficiency. This systematic review provides additional knowledge concerning the benefits of PA in the treatment of individuals with BED including reduction of binge eating (BE) episodes and improvement in other associated comorbidities. Potential mechanisms of action of PA include neurochemical alterations affecting the reward system, reduction of negative affect, and its anorexigenic effects.

Conceptualising Binge Eating: A Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature

Binge eating is a distressing symptom common to bulimia nervosa (BN), anorexia nervosa binge/purge subtype (AN-BP) and binge-eating disorder (BED). Over the last 40 years, many attempts have been made to conceptualise this symptom in terms of its antecedents, function, triggers, consequences, and maintaining factors. Cognitive theories of binge eating have evolved as new evidence has emerged. This literature review summarises the main and most influential cognitive models of binge eating across different eating disorder presentations. Many theories have examined binge eating in the context of restriction or compensatory behaviours, as is often observed in cases of BN. Few theories have examined binge eating as it occurs in BED specifically. The long-term efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) treatment based on these models leaves much to be desired, and indicates that there may be maintaining factors of binge eating not addressed in the typical CBT treatment for eating disorders. More recent cognitive models of binge eating propose possible maintaining beliefs, but further study is required to validate these models. Suggestions for future research are presented.

Confirmatory factor analysis and examination of the psychometric properties of the eating beliefs questionnaire

BACKGROUND

The Eating Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ) is a 27-item self-report measure that assesses positive and negative beliefs about binge eating. It has been validated and its factor structure explored in a non-clinical sample. This study tested the psychometric properties of the EBQ in a clinical and a non-clinical sample.

METHOD

A sample of 769 participants (573 participants recruited from the university and general community, 76 seeking treatment for an eating disorder and 120 participating in obesity research) completed a battery of questionnaires. A subset of clinical participants with a diagnosis of Bulimia Nervosa or Binge Eating Disorder completed the test-battery before and after receiving a psychological treatment (n = 27) or after allocation to a wait-list period (n = 28), and a subset of 35 community participants completed the test battery again after an interval of two-weeks. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed.

RESULTS

CFA found a two-factor structure that provided a good fit to the data, supporting the solution presented in the development paper. Items with poor psychometric properties were removed, resulting in a 16 item measure. EBQ scores were found to correlate with binge eating episode frequency, increases in body mass index (BMI), and measures of eating disorder behaviours and related psychopathology. The EBQ was found to have excellent internal consistency (α = .94), good test-retest reliability (r = .91) and sensitivity to treatment.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that the EBQ is a psychometrically sound and clinically useful measure.

Caffeine cravings impair memory and metacognition

Cravings for food and other substances can impair cognition. We extended previous research by testing the effects of caffeine cravings on cued-recall and recognition memory tasks, and on the accuracy of judgements of learning (JOLs; predicted future recall) and feeling-of-knowing (FOK; predicted future recognition for items that cannot be recalled). Participants (N = 55) studied word pairs (POND-BOOK) and completed a cued-recall test and a recognition test. Participants made JOLs prior to the cued-recall test and FOK judgements prior to the recognition test. Participants were randomly allocated to a craving or control condition; we manipulated caffeine cravings via a combination of abstinence, cue exposure, and imagery. Cravings impaired memory performance on the cued-recall and recognition tasks. Cravings also impaired resolution (the ability to distinguish items that would be remembered from those that would not) for FOK judgements but not JOLs, and reduced calibration (correspondence between predicted and actual accuracy) for JOLs but not FOK judgements. Additional analysis of the cued-recall data suggested that cravings also reduced participants' ability to monitor the likely accuracy of answers during the cued-recall test. These findings add to prior research demonstrating that memory strength manipulations have systematically different effects on different types of metacognitive judgements.

Social appearance anxiety and dietary restraint as mediators between perfectionism and binge eating: A six month three wave longitudinal study

Binge eating is related to perfectionism and restrained eating. However, the mechanisms underlying these relationships are not well understood. It is possible that social anxiety, specifically social appearance anxiety (i.e., the fear of overall appearance evaluation), influences the relationship between binge eating, perfectionism, and dietary restraint. In the current study (N = 300 women), we tested the relationship between dietary restraint, social appearance anxiety, concern over mistakes (a component of perfectionism), and binge eating in prospective data (three time points: at baseline, at two month, and at six month follow up). We found that social appearance anxiety, dietary restraint, and concern over mistakes each predicted binge eating at baseline. Only social appearance anxiety prospectively predicted binge eating when accounting for all variables. Further, in the tested model, social appearance anxiety mediated the relationship between concern over mistakes and binge eating across six months. On the contrary, dietary restraint did not mediate the relationship between concern over mistakes and binge eating in the tested model. The finding that social appearance anxiety served as a mediator between concern over mistakes and binge eating, but that dietary restraint did not, implies that social appearance anxiety may be a more salient prospective predictor of binge eating than dietary restraint. Intervening on social appearance anxiety may be important in the treatment and prevention of binge eating.

The ABBA study - approach bias modification in bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The core symptoms of bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge eating disorder (BED) are recurrent episodes of binge eating. Despite negative psychological and physical consequences, BN/BED patients show uncontrollable approach tendencies towards food. This cognitive bias occurs at an early stage of information processing. Cognitive bias modification (CBM) directly targets such biases and has been shown to be effective in treating several mental disorders. In alcohol addiction, automatic action tendencies towards alcohol cues and relapse rates were successfully reduced by a specific form of CBM, termed approach bias modification. Based on these findings and data from a proof-of-concept study in people with high levels of food craving, CBM is considered a promising new treatment approach for BN/BED. Given the similarities between BN/BED and addictive disorders, the rationale for using approach bias modification appears to be particularly strong. The aim of the present study is to examine whether, compared to a sham training, computerised approach bias modification (10 sessions) can reduce binge-eating episodes in BN/BED patients from pre-treatment to follow-up. Additionally, we will investigate whether this CBM programme also reduces global eating disorder psychopathology, trait and cue-elicited food craving, food intake as well as approach and attentional bias towards visual food cues. Treatment acceptance will be determined by attrition rates and responses on a feedback form.

METHODS

This is a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel-group superiority trial with two parallel arms. A total of 54 BN/BED patients will be recruited. Approach bias towards food will be retrained by a computer task adopting an implicit learning paradigm. Patients in the control condition (sham) will conduct a similar task but will not be trained to avoid food cues. Methods against bias include public registration, randomisation by a central study office, standardisation of the treatments and blinding of assessors. Furthermore, the session number and duration will be equivalent in the two conditions.

DISCUSSION

This is the first registered randomised controlled trial of approach bias modification in a clinical BN/BED sample. Results from this study will provide an indication of the efficacy of approach bias modification training for BN/BED and the potential mechanisms of action underlying this treatment.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

DRKS00010231 (retrospectively registered on 24 March 2016; first version).

Differential Effects of Estrogen and Progesterone on Genetic and Environmental Risk for Emotional Eating in Women

Recent data show shifts in genetic and environmental influences on emotional eating across the menstrual cycle, with significant shared environmental influences during pre-ovulation, and primarily genetic effects during post-ovulation. Factors driving differential effects are unknown, although increased estradiol during pre-ovulation and increased progesterone during post-ovulation are thought to play a role. We indirectly investigated this possibility by examining whether overall levels of estradiol and progesterone differentially impact genetic and environmental risk for emotional eating in adult female twins (N = 571) drawn from the MSU Twin Registry. Emotional eating, estradiol levels, and progesterone levels were assessed daily and then averaged to create aggregate measures for analysis. As predicted, shared environmental influences were significantly greater in twins with high estradiol levels, whereas additive genetic effects increased substantially across low versus high progesterone groups. Results highlight significant and differential effects of ovarian hormones on etiologic risk for emotional eating in adulthood.

Food cravings, binge eating, and eating disorder psychopathology: Exploring the moderating roles of gender and race

OBJECTIVE

To examine the moderating effects of gender and race on the relationships among food cravings, binge eating, and eating disorder psychopathology in a community sample.

METHODS

Data were collected from a convenience sample of 320 adults (53% male; mean age 28.5±8.2years; mean BMI 27.1±5.2kg/m(2); mean education 15.1±2.2years; 64% white, 24% black, and 13% other race) participating in a cross-sectional study examining the interactions between stress, self-control and addiction. Participants completed a comprehensive assessment panel including a demographic questionnaire, the Food Craving Inventory, and Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using multiple logistic regression for binge eating behavior and multiple linear regression for eating disorder psychopathology.

RESULTS

Overall, food cravings demonstrated significant main effects for binge eating behavior (adjusted OR=2.65, p<.001) and global eating disorder psychopathology (B=.47±.09, p<.001). Females had a stronger relationship between food cravings and eating disorder psychopathology than males; there were no statistically significant differences by race.

CONCLUSION

These findings, based on a diverse sample recruited from the community, suggest that food cravings are associated with binge eating and eating disorder psychopathology and may represent an important target for interventions.

Shared and unique mechanisms underlying binge eating disorder and addictive disorders

Scientific interest in "food addiction" is growing, but the topic remains controversial. One critique of "food addiction" is its high degree of phenotypic overlap with binge eating disorder (BED). In order to examine associations between problematic eating behaviors, such as binge eating and "food addiction," we propose the need to move past examining similarities and differences in symptomology. Instead, focusing on relevant mechanisms may more effectively determine whether "food addiction" contributes to disordered eating behavior for some individuals. This paper reviews the evidence for mechanisms that are shared (i.e., reward dysfunction, impulsivity) and unique for addiction (i.e., withdrawal, tolerance) and eating disorder (i.e., dietary restraint, shape/weight concern) frameworks. This review will provide a guiding framework to outline future areas of research needed to evaluate the validity of the "food addiction" model and to understand its potential contribution to disordered eating.

Sexual violence, weight perception, and eating disorder indicators in college females

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationships between sexual violence experiences, inaccurate body weight perceptions, and the presence of eating disorder (ED) indicators in a sample of female US college students.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 6,090 college females 25 years of age and younger.

METHODS

A secondary analysis of National College Health Assessment data gathered annually at one institution from 2004 to 2013 was utilized. A model predicting ED indicators was tested using logistic regression analyses with multiple categorical variables representing severity of sexual violence, accuracy of body weight perception, and an interaction between the two.

RESULTS

Sexual violence and inaccurate body weight perception significantly predicted ED indicators; sexual violence was the strongest predictor of purging behavior, whereas inaccurate body weight perception was best predicted by underweight status.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings provide support to the relationship between purging behavior and severity of sexual violence and also to the link between inaccurate body weight perception and being underweight.

Sexuality in eating disorders patients: etiological factors, sexual dysfunction and identity issues. A systematic review

The scientific community appears to be less interested in sexuality of eating disorders (EDs) as compared to other psychiatric or medical comorbidities. However, a clear association between sexual problems and ED psychopathology was reported from different perspectives. The overarching goal of this systematic review was to evaluate the general approach of the scientific literature toward the topic of sexuality and EDs. In particular, four different categories of research have been individuated, encompassing the role of puberty, and sexual abuse in the pathogenesis of the disorders, sexual dysfunctions, and the association between sexual orientation and EDs psychopathology. Timing of puberty with its hormonal consequences and the changes in the way persons perceive their own body represent a crucial period of life for the onset of the disorder. Sexual abuse, and especially childhood sexual abuse are well-recognized risk factors for the development of ED, determining a worse long-term outcome. Recent research overcome the approach that considers sexual activity of EDs patients, in terms of hypersexuality and dangerous sexual behaviors, considering the sexuality of EDs persons in terms of sexual desire, satisfaction, orgasm and pain. Results from this line of research are promising, and describe a clear relationship between sexual dysfunction and the core psychopathological features of EDs, such as body image disturbances. Finally, the analysis of the literature showed an association between sexual orientation and gender dysphoria with EDs psychopathology and pathological eating behaviors, confirming the validity of research developing new models of maintaining factors of EDs related to the topic of self-identity.

Changes in genetic risk for emotional eating across the menstrual cycle: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown significant within-person changes in binge eating and emotional eating across the menstrual cycle, with substantial increases in both phenotypes during post-ovulation. Increases in both estradiol and progesterone levels appear to account for these changes in phenotypic risk, possibly via increases in genetic effects. However, to date, no study has examined changes in genetic risk for binge phenotypes (or any other phenotype) across the menstrual cycle. The goal of the present study was to examine within-person changes in genetic risk for emotional eating scores across the menstrual cycle.

METHOD

Participants were 230 female twin pairs (460 twins) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry who completed daily measures of emotional eating for 45 consecutive days. Menstrual cycle phase was coded based on dates of menstrual bleeding and daily ovarian hormone levels.

RESULTS

Findings revealed important shifts in genetic and environmental influences, where estimates of genetic influences were two times higher in post- as compared with pre-ovulation. Surprisingly, pre-ovulation was marked by a predominance of environmental influences, including shared environmental effects which have not been previously detected for binge eating phenotypes in adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study was the first to examine within-person shifts in genetic and environmental influences on a behavioral phenotype across the menstrual cycle. Results highlight a potentially critical role for these shifts in risk for emotional eating across the menstrual cycle and underscore the need for additional, large-scale studies to identify the genetic and environmental factors contributing to menstrual cycle effects.

Women's weight and disordered eating in a large Norwegian community sample: the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT)

OBJECTIVES

An increasing part of the population is affected by disordered eating (DE) even though they do not meet the full eating disorder (ED) criteria. To improve treatment in the range of weight-related disorders, there is a need to improve our knowledge about DE and relevant correlates of weight problems such as underweight, overweight and obesity. However, studies investigating DE and weight problems in a wide range of ages in the general population have been lacking. This paper explores DE, weight problems, dieting and weight dissatisfaction among women in a general population sample.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

The third survey of the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT3).

PARTICIPANTS

The population included 27,252 women, aged 19-99 years, with information on DE outcomes and covariates.

OUTCOMES

DE was assessed with an 8-item version of the Eating Attitude Test and the Eating Disorder Scale-5. Body mass index (BMI) was objectively measured. Data on dieting and weight dissatisfaction were collected from self-reported questionnaires and analysed across weight categories. Crude and adjusted logistic and multinomial logistic regression models were used.

RESULTS

High rates of overweight (38%) and obesity (23%) were found. DE was associated with weight problems. In women aged <30 years, 11.8% (95% CI 10.3 to 13.1) reported DE, and 12% (95% CI 11.5 to 12.6) reported DE in women aged >30 years. In those of younger ages (19-29 years), lower weight predicted DE, while increasing weight predicted DE in older aged women (30-99 years). The majority of women were dissatisfied with their weight (58.8%), and 54.1% of the women reported dieting. Neither BMI status nor age was associated with dieting or weight dissatisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

A high prevalence of DE was observed, and findings suggest that weight problems and DE are not distinct from one another. Dieting was associated with women's weight dissatisfaction, rather than with actual weight. This requires further investigations about directionality of effects.

Pharmacological approaches to the management of binge eating disorder

In the USA, binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common eating disorder, with a lifetime prevalence of ~3.5 % in adult women, 2.0 % in adult men, and 1.6 % in adolescents. BED is characterized by frequent episodes of binge eating that are accompanied by a sense of loss of control over eating and result in marked psychological distress. BED is highly co-morbid with obesity and with depression and other psychiatric conditions, and it is associated with substantial role impairment. Currently, there are no US FDA-approved pharmacological treatments for BED. Animal and human studies implicate underlying dysregulation in dopamine, opioid, acetylcholine, and serotonin neurocircuitry within brain reward regions in the pathogenesis and maintenance of BED. To date, the efficacy of various agents that target these and other neurotransmitter systems involved in motivated feeding behavior, mood regulation, and impulse control have been investigated in the treatment of BED. Several antidepressant and anticonvulsant agents have demonstrated efficacy in reducing binge eating frequency, but only in limited cases have these effects resulted in patients achieving abstinence, which is the primary goal of treatment; they also range from less (fluvoxamine) to more (topiramate) effective in achieving weight loss that is both clinically meaningful and significantly greater than placebo. Collectively, the literature on pharmacological treatment approaches to BED is limited in that very few agents have been studied in multiple, confirmatory trials with adequate follow up, and almost none have been evaluated in large patient samples that are diverse with respect to age, sex, and ethnicity. In addition, prior trials have not adequately addressed, through study design, the high placebo response commonly observed in this patient population. Several novel agents are in various phases of testing, and recent animal studies focusing on glutamate-signaling circuits linking the amygdala to the lateral hypothalamus offer new avenues for exploration and potential therapeutic development. Studies of newly FDA-approved medications for long-term obesity treatment and further explorations of dietary supplements and neutraceuticals with appetite- and mood-altering properties may also be worthwhile.

A longitudinal study on emotional dysregulation and obesity risk: From pregnancy to 3 years of age of the baby

Some recent findings indicate that maternal sensitivity and emotional regulation may play a key role in predicting the risk for obesity of the child in early ages. The current article describes a longitudinal study encompassing more than 50 women, across a time-span that currently goes from pregnancy (n = 65) to three years of age of the baby (n = 53). In a previous report on our ongoing research project, we showed that emotional regulation during pregnancy and pre-pregnancy BMI significantly predicted the quality of the early, dyadic feeding interactions, at 7 months of age of the baby. The current study confirmed and extended those findings, by showing that maternal emotional dysregulation (r = .355, p = .009) and pre-pregnancy BMI (r = .389, p = .004) predicted the BMI of the child at three years of age too, with a medium to large effect size. However, neither maternal emotional regulation nor pre-pregnancy BMI significantly predicted infant attachment at one year of age.

Expanding binge eating assessment: Validity and screening value of the Binge Eating Scale in women from the general population

There is growing recognition that binge eating is a prevalent problem with serious implications for both clinical and nonclinical samples. The current study aimed at examining the factor structure, psychometric properties and the screening usefulness of the Binge Eating Scale (BES) in a large sample of female college students and women from the Portuguese general population. A sample of 1008 participants was collected to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis and test the BES psychometric properties; 150 participants were further evaluated through the Eating Disorder Examination 16.0D to assess the discriminant validity of the BES. Results confirmed that the BES presents a sound one-dimensional factorial structure, with very good construct reliability and convergent validity. Also, the scale presented very good retest-reliability. Findings also offered evidence that the BES is positively associated with measures of eating and general psychopathology, and BMI. Furthermore, the BES revealed an excellent performance (96.7%) on discriminating clinically significant cases of binge eating, showing a sensitivity of 81.8% and a specificity of 97.8%. Results support the validity and usefulness of the BES as an assessment and screening tool for binge eating in women from the general population.

Emotion-focused group therapy for women with symptoms of bulimia nervosa

This study provides outcome pilot data for an outpatient emotion-focused therapy group for 12 women with DSM-IV diagnoses of binge-eating disorder, bulimia nervosa, or eating disorder not otherwise specified. The emotion-focused therapy group involved 16 weekly sessions that targeted problematic emotions connected to eating disorder symptoms. Semi-structured clinical interviews were conducted pre- and post-treatment and self-report questionnaires were administered. From pre- to post-treatment, changes in binge eating and scores on self-report measures were statistically significant. Participants reported a decrease in the frequency of binge episodes, improvements in mood, and improvements in emotion regulation and self-efficacy.

Pretreatment outcome indicators in an eating disorder outpatient group: the effects of self-esteem, personality disorders and dissociation

OBJECTIVE

The prognosis for eating disorders (ED) is unsatisfactory, and the literature about outcome indicators is controversial. The present study evaluates the roles of self-esteem, personality disorders (PD), and dissociation as outcome predictors.

METHOD

Fifty-seven ED outpatients were recruited from a population beginning a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy-Enhanced (CBT-E) treatment. All patients received the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I (SCID-I), the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II (SCID-II), and completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), the Dissociation Questionnaire (DIS-Q), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). One month after the end of treatment, recovery was evaluated as meeting the DSM-IV criteria for EDs.

RESULTS

A small group of patients recovered (42.2%). Low self-esteem and dissociation results correlated with a negative outcome.

DISCUSSION

Dissociation may be an important moderator of psychotherapy and treatment success, as already suggested by previous studies on non-eating-related disorders.

Assessing affective variability in eating disorders: affect spins less in anorexia nervosa of the restrictive type

Differences in affective variability in eating disorders are examined using an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol. It is hypothesized that restriction serves to pre-empt the activation of affect whereas bulimic behavior serves to cope with overwhelming affect once activated. Therefore, we expect anorexia nervosa (AN) patients of the restricting type (AN-RT) to have lower mean levels of affect and less affective variability than Bulimia Nervosa (BN) patients. Patients' successive affective states over time are represented as different positions in a two-dimensional space defined by the orthogonal dimensions of valence and activation. Affective variability is measured by the within person variance and the new concepts of pulse and spin. Results of this exploratory study suggest that the diagnostic groups have the same mean levels of affect but affect spins less in patients with AN-RT. Using an EMA protocol and measures like pulse and spin may reveal insights in eating disorders that remain hidden with more traditional assessment methods.

Olfactory stimulation curbs food cravings

Based on the logic of mutual competition between cravings and odours for limited-capacity resources, this study investigated whether a simple olfactory task, involving a brief odour exposure, could reduce food cravings. In support, Experiment 1 showed that smelling a neutral unfamiliar odorant reduced cravings for highly desired food items, relative to a comparison auditory task and a no-task control condition. Experiment 2 replicated these findings specifically for chocolate cravings, which can be particularly problematic. Thus olfactory stimulation offers potential scope for curbing unwanted food cravings.

Relationships between psychological stress, coping and disordered eating: A review

Abstract Objective: Psychological stress and inadequate coping skills have been hypothesized to play important roles in the etiology of disordered eating. This paper reviews the empirical evidence which has emerged regarding the proposed relationships among stress. coping skills and various forms of disordered eating.

METHOD

A search of psychological and medical databases was conducted to identify studies examining life events, and other types of psychological stress and coping strategies, in relation to the onset of disordered eating.

RESULTS

Despite methodological limitations such as the use of non-representative samples and retrospective methodologies, evidence of relationships between stress. coping and disordered eating was obtained in the majority of studies reviewed.

DISCUSSION

The implications of these findings am discussed and suggestions for future research, including the utilization of longitudinal. prospective studies, am presented.

Non-food odorants reduce chocolate cravings

The present study compared the relative effectiveness of simple, commercially available food and non-food olfactory tasks on chocolate craving reduction. Chocolate cravings were induced by a series of coloured photographs and 67 undergraduate women were asked to smell one of three odours (green apple, jasmine, or water). The non-food odorant (jasmine) significantly reduced chocolate cravings relative to both the food and control odorants. Thus simple non-food odorants offer potential scope as a technique for curbing unwanted food cravings.

Emotional processing following recovery from anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

Evidence suggests that poor emotional processing perpetuates anorexia nervosa (AN); however, emotional processing following recovery and interactions between aspects of processing remain unknown. This study examined beliefs about emotions, emotional tolerance and avoidance and emotion suppression to preserve relationships in recovered AN patients. It also explored whether beliefs about emotion are related to emotional avoidance.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional between-groups design was employed.

METHOD

Currently ill (n = 40), recovered AN patients (n = 24) and a sample of healthy controls (n = 48) completed measures of clinical and demographic background in addition to the Beliefs About Emotions, Distress Tolerance and Silencing the Self emotional processing questionnaires.

RESULTS

Recovered and healthy control groups were comparable (except for higher externalised self-perception in recovered participants) and both had better emotional processing than current AN patients. Beliefs about emotions correlated with level of emotional avoidance.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates functional levels of emotional processing following recovery from AN. It substantiates models proposing that maladaptive beliefs about emotions link to emotional avoidance and supports inclusion of these factors as treatment foci.

Which comes first in food-mood relationships, foods or moods?

College students (n=44) completed seven-day records of foods and moods. Nutritionist™ software measured daily nutrition scores including calories, carbohydrates, saturated fat, and sodium. Hierarchical stepwise multiple regression (controlling for gender, restrained eating) revealed that nutrition scores were more consistently associated with negative moods than positive moods, and with moods across a two-day span rather than a one-day span as typically studied in past research. The more calories, saturated fat, and sodium consumed by the students, the more negative mood they reported 2 days later. Results suggest that foods come first in the temporal sequence of food-mood relationships.

Compulsive exercise and eating disorders

The aim of this review was to develop an empirically supported cognitive behavioural model of compulsive exercise within the context of the eating disorders. A systematic review of the correlates and predictors of compulsive exercise among eating disordered patients identified four key correlates. These were subsequently validated by a second review, incorporating both the clinical and non-clinical as well as the exercise science literatures. A proposed model is presented which is both evidence-based and testable.

The 2 to 4 digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women

Eating disorders are more common in females than in males and are believed to be caused, in part, by biological and hormonal factors. Digit ratio or 2D:4D (the ratio of the 2(nd) to the 4(th) digit) is considered to be a proxy for prenatal testosterone (PT) and prenatal oestrogen (PE) exposure. However, how 2D:4D may be related to type of eating pathology is unknown. The relationship between 2D:4D and eating disorder diagnosis was investigated in recovered and currently eating disordered (n=31) and control (n=99) women. Mean 2D:4D ratio was significantly lower (indicating higher levels of PT and lower levels of PE) in anorexic (AN) compared to bulimic (BN) women, with controls intermediary. In eating disordered women, 2D:4D was positively and significantly related to current weight, lowest weight and current BMI, with strongest associations for right 2D:4D. Among women, low 2D:4D is related to AN and high 2D:4D to BN, suggesting a differential causal influence of prenatal sex hormones on later eating pathology.

Effects of stress and coping on binge eating in female college students

Limited research exists on the association between stress, coping, and binge eating. To address this paucity, this study explores these associations in a sample of 147 female college students, an at-risk population for binge eating. We hypothesized that emotional and avoidant coping would be positively associated with stress and binge eating. Conversely, we expected that rational and detached coping would be negatively related to stress and binge eating. Furthermore, we expected these coping styles to mediate the relationship between stress and binge eating. As predicted, emotion-focused and avoidant coping were positively associated with stress and binge eating. Additionally, emotion-focused coping partially mediated the relationship between stress and binge eating. However, no association was found between stress, rational or detached coping, and binge eating. These results are discussed within the context of a negative reinforcement model of binge eating. Lastly, the importance of providing evidence-based treatment for individuals with binge eating symptomology is discussed in light of our findings.

If the data contradict the theory, throw out the data: Nicotine addiction in the 2010 report of the Surgeon General

The reports of US Surgeon General on smoking are considered the authoritative statement on the scientific state of the art in this field. The previous report on nicotine addiction published in 1988 is one of the most cited references in scientific articles on smoking and often the only citation provided for specific statements of facts regarding nicotine addiction. In this commentary we review the chapter on nicotine addiction presented in the recent report of the Surgeon General. We show that the nicotine addiction model presented in this chapter, which closely resembles its 22 years old predecessor, could only be sustained by systematically ignoring all contradictory evidence. As a result, the present SG's chapter on nicotine addiction, which purportedly "documents how nicotine compares with heroin and cocaine in its hold on users and its effects on the brain," is remarkably biased and misleading.