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Stoll A, Shenton DP, Green AC, Holley JL. Comparative Aspects of Ricin Toxicity by Inhalation. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15040281. [PMID: 37104219 PMCID: PMC10145923 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of ricin toxicity following inhalation has been investigated in many animal models, including the non-human primate (predominantly the rhesus macaque), pig, rabbit and rodent. The toxicity and associated pathology described in animal models are broadly similar, but variation appears to exist. This paper reviews the published literature and some of our own unpublished data and describes some of the possible reasons for this variation. Methodological variation is evident, including method of exposure, breathing parameters during exposure, aerosol characteristics, sampling protocols, ricin cultivar, purity and challenge dose and study duration. The model species and strain used represent other significant sources of variation, including differences in macro- and microscopic anatomy, cell biology and function, and immunology. Chronic pathology of ricin toxicity by inhalation, associated with sublethal challenge or lethal challenge and treatment with medical countermeasures, has received less attention in the literature. Fibrosis may follow acute lung injury in survivors. There are advantages and disadvantages to the different models of pulmonary fibrosis. To understand their potential clinical significance, these factors need to be considered when choosing a model for chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation, including species and strain susceptibility to fibrosis, time it takes for fibrosis to develop, the nature of the fibrosis (e.g., self-limiting, progressive, persistent or resolving) and ensuring that the analysis truly represents fibrosis. Understanding the variables and comparative aspects of acute and chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation is important to enable meaningful comparison of results from different studies, and for the investigation of medical countermeasures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Stoll
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK
| | - Daniel P Shenton
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK
| | | | - Jane L Holley
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK
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2
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Rong Y, Torres-Velez FJ, Ehrbar D, Doering J, Song R, Mantis NJ. An intranasally administered monoclonal antibody cocktail abrogates ricin toxin-induced pulmonary tissue damage and inflammation. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2019; 16:793-807. [PMID: 31589555 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2019.1664243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Ricin toxin, a plant-derived, mannosylated glycoprotein, elicits an incapacitating and potentially lethal inflammatory response in the airways following inhalation. Uptake of ricin by alveolar macrophages (AM) and other pulmonary cell types occurs via two parallel pathways: one mediated by ricin's B subunit (RTB), a galactose-specific lectin, and one mediated by the mannose receptor (MR;CD206). Ricin's A subunit (RTA) is a ribosome-inactivating protein that triggers apoptosis in mammalian cells. It was recently reported that a single monoclonal antibody (MAb), PB10, directed against an immunodominant epitope on RTA and administered intravenously, was able to rescue Rhesus macaques from lethal aerosol dose of ricin. In this study, we now demonstrate in mice that the effectiveness PB10 is significantly improved when combined with a second MAb, SylH3, against RTB. Mice treated with PB10 alone survived lethal-dose intranasal ricin challenge, but experienced significant weight loss, moderate pulmonary inflammation (e.g., elevated IL-1 and IL-6 levels, PMN influx), and apoptosis of lung macrophages. In contrast, mice treated with the PB10/SylH3 cocktail were essentially impervious to pulmonary ricin toxin exposure, as evidenced by no weight loss, no change in local IL-1 and IL-6 levels, retention of lung macrophages, and a significant dampening of PMN recruitment into the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids. The PB10/SylH3 cocktail only marginally reduced ricin binding to target cells in the BAL, suggesting that the antibody mixture neutralizes ricin by interfering with one or more steps in the RTB- and MR-dependent uptake pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghui Rong
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Fernando J Torres-Velez
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Dylan Ehrbar
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Jennifer Doering
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Renjie Song
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Nicholas J Mantis
- New York State Department of Health, Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY, USA
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3
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Roy CJ, Ehrbar DJ, Bohorova N, Bohorov O, Kim D, Pauly M, Whaley K, Rong Y, Torres-Velez FJ, Vitetta ES, Didier PJ, Doyle-Meyers L, Zeitlin L, Mantis NJ. Rescue of rhesus macaques from the lethality of aerosolized ricin toxin. JCI Insight 2019; 4:124771. [PMID: 30626745 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.124771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ricin toxin (RT) ranks at the top of the list of bioweapons of concern to civilian and military personnel alike, due to its high potential for morbidity and mortality after inhalation. In nonhuman primates, aerosolized ricin triggers severe acute respiratory distress characterized by perivascular and alveolar edema, neutrophilic infiltration, and severe necrotizing bronchiolitis and alveolitis. There are currently no approved countermeasures for ricin intoxication. Here, we report the therapeutic potential of a humanized mAb against an immunodominant epitope on ricin's enzymatic A chain (RTA). Rhesus macaques that received i.v. huPB10 4 hours after a lethal dose of ricin aerosol exposure survived toxin challenge, whereas control animals succumbed to ricin intoxication within 30 hours. Antibody intervention at 12 hours resulted in the survival of 1 of 5 monkeys. Changes in proinflammatory cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor profiles in bronchial alveolar lavage fluids before and after toxin challenge successfully clustered animals by treatment group and survival, indicating a relationship between local tissue damage and experimental outcome. This study represents the first demonstration, to our knowledge, in nonhuman primates that the lethal effects of inhalational ricin exposure can be negated by a drug candidate, and it opens up a path forward for product development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad J Roy
- Tulane National Primate Research Center (TNPRC), Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Dylan J Ehrbar
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Do Kim
- Mapp Biopharmaceutical Inc., San Diego, California, USA
| | - Michael Pauly
- Mapp Biopharmaceutical Inc., San Diego, California, USA
| | - Kevin Whaley
- Mapp Biopharmaceutical Inc., San Diego, California, USA
| | - Yinghui Rong
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Fernando J Torres-Velez
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Ellen S Vitetta
- Departments of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Peter J Didier
- Tulane National Primate Research Center (TNPRC), Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Lara Doyle-Meyers
- Tulane National Primate Research Center (TNPRC), Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Larry Zeitlin
- Mapp Biopharmaceutical Inc., San Diego, California, USA
| | - Nicholas J Mantis
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
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4
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Wong J, Magun BE, Wood LJ. Lung inflammation caused by inhaled toxicants: a review. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2016; 11:1391-401. [PMID: 27382275 PMCID: PMC4922809 DOI: 10.2147/copd.s106009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure of the lungs to airborne toxicants from different sources in the environment may lead to acute and chronic pulmonary or even systemic inflammation. Cigarette smoke is the leading cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, although wood smoke in urban areas of underdeveloped countries is now recognized as a leading cause of respiratory disease. Mycotoxins from fungal spores pose an occupational risk for respiratory illness and also present a health hazard to those living in damp buildings. Microscopic airborne particulates of asbestos and silica (from building materials) and those of heavy metals (from paint) are additional sources of indoor air pollution that contributes to respiratory illness and is known to cause respiratory illness in experimental animals. Ricin in aerosolized form is a potential bioweapon that is extremely toxic yet relatively easy to produce. Although the aforementioned agents belong to different classes of toxic chemicals, their pathogenicity is similar. They induce the recruitment and activation of macrophages, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, inhibition of protein synthesis, and production of interleukin-1 beta. Targeting either macrophages (using nanoparticles) or the production of interleukin-1 beta (using inhibitors against protein kinases, NOD-like receptor protein-3, or P2X7) may potentially be employed to treat these types of lung inflammation without affecting the natural immune response to bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Wong
- School of Nursing, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bruce E Magun
- School of Nursing, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lisa J Wood
- School of Nursing, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA, USA
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5
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Respaud R, Marchand D, Pelat T, Tchou-Wong KM, Roy CJ, Parent C, Cabrera M, Guillemain J, Mac Loughlin R, Levacher E, Fontayne A, Douziech-Eyrolles L, Junqua-Moullet A, Guilleminault L, Thullier P, Guillot-Combe E, Vecellio L, Heuzé-Vourc'h N. Development of a drug delivery system for efficient alveolar delivery of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody to treat pulmonary intoxication to ricin. J Control Release 2016; 234:21-32. [PMID: 27173943 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The high toxicity of ricin and its ease of production have made it a major bioterrorism threat worldwide. There is however no efficient and approved treatment for poisoning by ricin inhalation, although there have been major improvements in diagnosis and therapeutic strategies. We describe the development of an anti-ricin neutralizing monoclonal antibody (IgG 43RCA-G1) and a device for its rapid and effective delivery into the lungs for an application in humans. The antibody is a full-length IgG and binds to the ricin A-chain subunit with a high affinity (KD=53pM). Local administration of the antibody into the respiratory tract of mice 6h after pulmonary ricin intoxication allowed the rescue of 100% of intoxicated animals. Specific operational constraints and aerosolization stresses, resulting in protein aggregation and loss of activity, were overcome by formulating the drug as a dry-powder that is solubilized extemporaneously in a stabilizing solution to be nebulized. Inhalation studies in mice showed that this formulation of IgG 43RCA-G1 did not induce pulmonary inflammation. A mesh nebulizer was customized to improve IgG 43RCA-G1 deposition into the alveolar region of human lungs, where ricin aerosol particles mostly accumulate. The drug delivery system also comprises a semi-automatic reconstitution system to facilitate its use and a specific holding chamber to maximize aerosol delivery deep into the lung. In vivo studies in monkeys showed that drug delivery with the device resulted in a high concentration of IgG 43RCA-G1 in the airways for at least 6h after local deposition, which is consistent with the therapeutic window and limited passage into the bloodstream.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Respaud
- Université François-Rabelais de Tours, UMR 1100, CHRU de Tours, Service de Pharmacie, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Denis Marchand
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; Aerodrug, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Thibaut Pelat
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA-CRSSA); Département de Microbiologie; Unité de biotechnologie des anticorps et des toxines; Brétigny sur Orge, France; BIOTEM, Parc d'activité Bièvre Dauphine, Apprieu, France
| | - Kam-Meng Tchou-Wong
- NYU School of Medicine, Department of Environmental Medicine, 57 Old Forge Road, Tuxedo, New York 10987, USA
| | - Chad J Roy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Christelle Parent
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Maria Cabrera
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Joël Guillemain
- SESAME, Expertise en toxicologie, Chambray-les-tours, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Laurent Guilleminault
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Philippe Thullier
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA-CRSSA); Département de Microbiologie; Unité de biotechnologie des anticorps et des toxines; Brétigny sur Orge, France
| | - Emmanuelle Guillot-Combe
- DGA, Direction de la Stratégie (DS), Mission pour la recherche et l'Innovation scientifique (MRIS), France
| | - Laurent Vecellio
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; Aerodrug, F-37032 Tours, France
| | - Nathalie Heuzé-Vourc'h
- Université François Rabelais, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France; INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, UMR 1100, F-37032 Tours, France.
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Chimeric plantibody passively protects mice against aerosolized ricin challenge. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2014; 21:777-82. [PMID: 24574537 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00003-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent incidents in the United States and abroad have heightened concerns about the use of ricin toxin as a bioterrorism agent. In this study, we produced, using a robust plant-based platform, four chimeric toxin-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies that were then evaluated for the ability to passively protect mice from a lethal-dose ricin challenge. The most effective antibody, c-PB10, was further evaluated in mice as a therapeutic following ricin exposure by injection and inhalation.
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7
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O'Hara JM, Yermakova A, Mantis NJ. Immunity to ricin: fundamental insights into toxin-antibody interactions. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 357:209-41. [PMID: 22113742 PMCID: PMC4433546 DOI: 10.1007/82_2011_193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ricin toxin is an extraordinarily potent inducer of cell death and inflammation. Ricin is also a potent provocateur of the humoral immune system, eliciting a mixture of neutralizing, non-neutralizing and even toxin-enhancing antibodies. The characterization of dozens of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the toxin's enzymatic (RTA) and binding (RTB) subunits has begun to reveal fundamental insights into the underlying mechanisms by which antibodies neutralize (or fail to neutralize) ricin in systemic and mucosal compartments. This information has had immediate applications in the design, development and evaluation of ricin subunit vaccines and immunotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M. O'Hara
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY 12201, USA
| | - Anastasiya Yermakova
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY 12201, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Mantis
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 120 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY 12201, USA
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8
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Understanding ricin from a defensive viewpoint. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:1373-92. [PMID: 22174975 PMCID: PMC3237001 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3111373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxin ricin has long been understood to have potential for criminal activity and there has been concern that it might be used as a mass-scale weapon on a military basis for at least two decades. Currently, the focus has extended to encompass terrorist activities using ricin to disrupt every day activities on a smaller scale. Whichever scenario is considered, there are features in common which need to be understood; these include the knowledge of the toxicity from ricin poisoning by the likely routes, methods for the detection of ricin in relevant materials and approaches to making an early diagnosis of ricin poisoning, in order to take therapeutic steps to mitigate the toxicity. This article will review the current situation regarding each of these stages in our collective understanding of ricin and how to defend against its use by an aggressor.
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9
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Benson JM, Gomez AP, Wolf ML, Tibbetts BM, March TH. The acute toxicity, tissue distribution, and histopathology of inhaled ricin in Sprague Dawley rats and BALB/c mice. Inhal Toxicol 2011; 23:247-56. [PMID: 21473711 DOI: 10.3109/08958378.2011.565490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Ricin is a highly toxic ribosome-inactivating protein derived from the castor bean (Ricinus communis). Due to the relative ease of producing ricin, it is characterized as a category B priority pathogen by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. The purpose of this study was to compare the acute toxicity, associated histopathology, as well as the regional respiratory tract deposition and clearance kinetics of inhaled ricin in rats and mice using a single pure preparation. Acute toxicity was evaluated in five groups of six animals per species exposed nose-only to ricin aerosols and followed up to 7 days post-exposure. Tissues were collected for histopathology. The calculated median lethal doses (LD₅₀s) were 0.24 µg/kg (rats) and 0.58 µg/kg (mice). Histological changes were noted in nose, larynges, trachea, lung, thymus, and spleen of both species. Pulmonary deposition in rats inhaling 94-99 ng/L ricin for 20 min (low dose) or 40 min (high dose) were 45.9 and 96 ng/g lung, respectively. Clearance was best described by a single-component negative exponential function. Estimated lung doses were 0.38 and 1.43 µg/g·h among the low and high dose rats, respectively. In mice inhaling 94 ng/L ricin for 20 min, pulmonary deposition was 91.1 ng/g lung and the estimated tissue dose was 1.72 µg/g·h. No ricin was detected in extra-respiratory tract tissue or in excreta. Results of this study demonstrate differences exist in pulmonary deposition, clearance rates, and tissue dose and histopathological changes between rats and mice inhaling ricin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Benson
- Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA.
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10
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Roels S, Coopman V, Vanhaelen P, Cordonnier J. Lethal ricin intoxication in two adult dogs: toxicologic and histopathologic findings. J Vet Diagn Invest 2010; 22:466-8. [PMID: 20453230 DOI: 10.1177/104063871002200325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Two adult dogs with the same owner were intoxicated by ingestion of fertilizer composed of residual plant material of the castor bean plant (Ricinus communis L.). Both dogs died within 2 and 3 days, respectively, after the first signs of vomiting and abundant hemorrhagic diarrhea. Toxicologic and histopathologic examinations were performed on different organs. Histopathologic examination of the kidneys revealed tubular degeneration and necrosis and membranous glomerulonephritis. Additionally, myocardial degeneration with localized inflammation, lymphoid necrosis, and depletion in the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes and hemorrhagic ulcerative gastroenteritis were found. The 2 cases could be used to elucidate the lethal dose of ricin and the histopathologic lesions in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Roels
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre (CODA/CERVA), Operational Direction of Interactions and Surveillance, Unit of Pathology, Groeselenberg 99, 1180 Brussels (Ukkel), Belgium.
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Roy CJ, Reed DS, Hutt JA. Aerobiology and inhalation exposure to biological select agents and toxins. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:779-89. [PMID: 20682804 DOI: 10.1177/0300985810378650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol is the most likely route of dissemination of biological select agents and toxins in a bioterrorist attack, regardless of the natural route of exposure to the agent. The use of animal models for testing preventative and therapeutic countermeasures requires knowledge of the pathogenesis of disease after inhalation exposure. Factors that relate to outcome after respiratory exposure include the inherent infectivity and virulence and/or toxicity of the agent in the host under investigation, in addition to characteristics of the aerosol particle and host that affect the delivered dose of, and host response to, the inhaled material. This introductory article discusses the emerging science of aerobiology and the unique features of respiratory tract anatomy, physiology, and immunology that are relevant to the pathogenesis of aerosolized biothreat agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Roy
- Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, 2425 Ridgecrest Drive SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA
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12
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Detection of residual toxin in tissues of ricin-poisoned mice by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoprecipitation. Anal Biochem 2010; 401:211-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2009] [Revised: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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13
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Rushing SR, Saylor ML, Hale ML. Translocation of ricin across polarized human bronchial epithelial cells. Toxicon 2009; 54:184-91. [PMID: 19374915 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2008] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/01/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to widespread availability, toxicity, and potential for use as a bioterrorism agent, ricin is classified as a category B select agent. While ricin can be internalized by a number of routes, inhalation is particularly problematic. The resulting damage leads to irreversible pulmonary edema and death. Our study describes a model system developed to investigate the effects of ricin on respiratory epithelium. Human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells were cultured on collagen IV-coated inserts until polarized epithelial cell monolayers developed. Ricin was added to the apical or basal medium and damage to the cell monolayer was then assessed. Within a few hours after exposure, the cell monolayer was permeable to paracellular passage of the toxin. A mouse anti-ricin antibody neutralized ricin and prevented cellular damage as long as the antibody was present before the addition of toxin. These studies suggested that effective therapeutic agents or antibodies neutralizing ricin biological activity must be present at the apical surface of epithelial cells. The in vitro system developed here provides a method by which to screen potential therapeutics for protecting lung epithelial cells against ricin intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Renée Rushing
- Brooke Army Medical Center, Department of Clinical Investigation, Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234, USA
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15
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Guglielmo-Viret V, Splettstoesser W, Thullier P. An Immunochromatographic Test for the Diagnosis of Ricin Inhalational Poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2008; 45:505-11. [PMID: 17503256 DOI: 10.1080/15563650701354226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Aerosolized ricin is a feared bioweapon for which no diagnostic protocol is currently available. METHODS We obtained antibodies to develop an immunochromatographic test (ICT) that would be part of such a protocol. RESULTS Our ICT, that can be read with the naked eye, has a sensitivity of 1 ng ricin/mL buffer, without enhancement, making it the most sensitive rapid test available for this toxin as far as we know. Its dynamic range extends to 10 microg/mL, with a plateau from 10 to at least 250 microg/mL (no "hook effect"), and it has limited cross-reactivity with other lectins. DISCUSSION Calculated from experimental and animal data, sampling with nasal swabs and testing with the devised ICT should give more than a thousand times the sensitivity required to diagnose ricin inhalational poisoning. Such a margin is particularly valuable in the absence of clinical data. CONCLUSION This cost-effective and easy to use diagnostic tool could assist in the diagnosis of inhalational exposure from ricin aerosols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Guglielmo-Viret
- Antibody Technology Group, Biology of Transmissible Agents Department, Centre de Recherche du Service de Santé des Armées, La Tronche, France
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16
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Griffiths GD, Phillips GJ, Holley J. Inhalation Toxicology of Ricin Preparations: Animal Models, Prophylactic and Therapeutic Approaches to Protection. Inhal Toxicol 2008; 19:873-87. [PMID: 17687718 DOI: 10.1080/08958370701432124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Ricin is a toxin and seed protein produced by the castor oil plant, Ricinus communis. The toxin is a dimeric protein consisting of an enzymic A chain and a B chain with lectin properties aiding the uptake of the whole molecule into cells. Ricin has been considered a possible military threat for several decades and is now also of some concern as a terrorist agent. The inhalation route is of primary concern in these situations, although previous attacks with ricin have used other approaches. Medical countermeasures against ricin are urgently required and the strategy adopted has been first to understand the nature of the problem, in this case the inhalation toxicology of ricin, followed by the preparation of vaccine antigens. Toxoided ricin and modified recombinant A chain components have been examined in terms of efficacy as potential vaccine candidates in protection of animal models against inhaled ricin, primarily in laboratories both in the United Kingdom and in the United States. One recombinant A chain vaccine has been taken through to clinical trials in the United States and should become commercially available in the next few years. Toxoided ricin has also been used as an antigen to prepare antitoxin antibodies for therapeutic treatment following poisoning. In this review, a synopsis of the inhalation toxicology of ricin and approaches to medical prophylaxis and therapy of poisoning is given, based on work conducted at our laboratory and at other research institutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth D Griffiths
- Biology, Biomedical Sciences Department, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, United Kingdom.
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Pratt TS, Pincus SH, Hale ML, Moreira AL, Roy CJ, Tchou-Wong KM. Oropharyngeal aspiration of ricin as a lung challenge model for evaluation of the therapeutic index of antibodies against ricin A-chain for post-exposure treatment. Exp Lung Res 2008; 33:459-81. [PMID: 17994372 DOI: 10.1080/01902140701731805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the effectiveness of passive antibody treatment as post-exposure therapy for ricin, we had developed an oropharyngeal aspiration model for ricin lethal challenge and antibody administration. When polyclonal anti-deglycosylated ricin A-chain antibody (dgA Ab) was administered between 1-18 hr after ricin challenge, all animals survived while delayed treatment to 24 hr resulted in 30% survival. The protective effects of dgA Ab correlated with inhibition of apoptosis in the lungs in vivo and in RAW264.7 macrophage and Jurkat T cells in vitro. In addition, ricin-induced cell cytotoxicity was inhibited by both dgA Ab and RAC18 monoclonal antibody against ricin A-chain. Administration of RAC18 monoclonal antibody at 4, 18, and 24 hr after ricin exposure resulted in 100%, 60% and 50% protection, respectively, suggesting that the therapeutic window for passive vaccination extended to at least 24 hr post-ricin lung challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy S Pratt
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, New York 10987, USA
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Wong J, Korcheva V, Jacoby DB, Magun B. Intrapulmonary delivery of ricin at high dosage triggers a systemic inflammatory response and glomerular damage. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 170:1497-510. [PMID: 17456757 PMCID: PMC1854946 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In view of the possibility that ricin may be used as a bioweapon against human populations, we examined the pathological consequences that occur in mice after introduction of ricin into the pulmonary system. Intratracheal instillation of a lethal dose of ricin (20 microg/100 g body weight) resulted in a hemorrhagic inflammatory response in multiple organs, accompanied by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, increased synthesis of proinflammatory RNA transcripts, and increased levels of circulating cytokines and chemokines. A sublethal dose of instilled ricin (2 microg/100 g body weight) induced a similar response in lungs but did not cause detectable damage in other organs. Lungs of mice that recovered from a sublethal dose of ricin displayed evidence of fibrosis and residual damage. A lethal dose of ricin caused accumulation of proinflammatory RNA transcripts and substantial damage to 28S rRNA of multiple organs, including lung, kidney, spleen, liver, and blood, demonstrating that instilled ricin gained access to the circulation. The kidneys of mice instilled with a lethal dose of ricin showed accumulation of fibrin/fibrinogen in glomerular capillaries, increased numbers of glomerular leukocytes, and impairment of kidney function. A sublethal dose of ricin failed to induce damage to 28S rRNA in kidney or other extrapulmonary organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Wong
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239, USA
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Cook DL, David J, Griffiths GD. Retrospective identification of ricin in animal tissues following administration by pulmonary and oral routes. Toxicology 2006; 223:61-70. [PMID: 16650517 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2006] [Revised: 03/02/2006] [Accepted: 03/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A previously characterised amplified ELISA for ricin (sensitivity limit approximately 200 pgmL(-1)) has been employed to quantify ricin following a novel recovery method from selected tissues. Tissue samples from rats dosed by pulmonary instillation or orally with ricin were homogenised and treated with an elution buffer to extract ricin. This is the first time that ex vivo recovery of ricin post exposure following pulmonary or oral challenge has been achieved using clinically acceptable sampling methods, with promise in terms of diagnosis for the timely implementation of therapy. The toxin was detected and quantified using the ELISA in conjunction with pure ricin standards. Extracts from tissues sampled, including lung, blood, liver and spleen tested positive for ricin with maximum yield in lung associated fractions for pulmonary dosing and liver tissue for oral administration. This indicates the potential of lavage and blood sampling for timely diagnosis of ricin poisoning by pulmonary and oral routes, respectively. Time course analysis at 24 and 48 h also indicated the progression of ricin from surfaces of the lung into the lung tissue. Inter-subject variation was observed in the case of oral dosing, with data for ricin-treated and vehicle control tissues not statistically different in all samples. In addition the oral toxicity of the crude ricin administered was found to be higher than expected in the rat, based upon published information and an unpublished in house murine study.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Leslie Cook
- Immunotoxicology Group, Biology, Biomedical Sciences, Dstl, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK
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Mantis NJ. Vaccines against the category B toxins: Staphylococcal enterotoxin B, epsilon toxin and ricin. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2005; 57:1424-39. [PMID: 15935880 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2005.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Accepted: 01/25/2005] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The threat of bioterrorism worldwide has accelerated the demand for the development of therapies and vaccines against the Category B toxins: staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), epsilon toxin (ETX) produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, and ricin, a natural product of the castor bean. The diverse and unique nature of these toxins poses a challenge to vaccinologists. While formalin-inactivated toxins can successfully induce antibody-mediated protection in animals, their usefulness in humans is limited because of potential safety concerns. For this reason, research is now aimed at developing recombinant, attenuated vaccines based on a detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which these toxins function. Vaccine development is further complicated by the fact that as bioterrorism agents, SEB, ETX and ricin would most likely be disseminated as aerosols or in food/water supplies. Our understanding of the mechanisms by which these toxins cross mucosal surfaces, and importance of mucosal immunity in preventing toxin uptake is only rudimentary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Mantis
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA.
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Abstract
This review highlights the current lack of therapeutic and prophylactic treatments for use against inhaled biological toxins, especially those considered as potential biological warfare (BW) or terrorist threats. Although vaccine development remains a priority, the use of rapidly deployable adjunctive therapeutic or prophylactic drugs could be life-saving in severe cases of intoxication or where vaccination has not been possible or immunity not established. The current lack of such drugs is due to many factors. Thus, methods involving molecular modelling are limited by the extent to which the cellular receptor sites and mode of action and structure of a toxin need to be known. There is also our general lack of knowledge of what effect individual toxins will have when inhaled into the lungs - whether and to what extent the action will be cell specific and cytotoxic or rather an acute inflammatory response requiring the use of immunomodulators. Possible sources of specific high-affinity toxin antagonists being investigated include monoclonal antibodies, selected oligonucleotides (aptamers) and derivatized dendritic polymers (dendrimers). The initial selection of suitable agents of these kinds can be made using cytotoxicity assays involving cultured normal human lung cells and a range of suitable indicators. The possibility that a mixture of selected antibody, aptamer or dendrimer-based materials for one or more toxins could be delivered simultaneously as injections or as inhaled aerosol sprays should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Paddle
- DSTO, Platforms Sciences Laboratory, 506 Lorimer Street, Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia.
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