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Williams JA, Long SY, Zeng X, Kuehl K, Babka AM, Davis NM, Liu J, Trefry JC, Daye S, Facemire PR, Iversen PL, Bavari S, Pitt ML, Nasar F. Eastern equine encephalitis virus rapidly infects and disseminates in the brain and spinal cord of cynomolgus macaques following aerosol challenge. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010081. [PMID: 35533188 PMCID: PMC9084534 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is mosquito-borne virus that produces fatal encephalitis in humans. We recently conducted a first of its kind study to investigate EEEV clinical disease course following aerosol challenge in a cynomolgus macaque model utilizing the state-of-the-art telemetry to measure critical physiological parameters. Here, we report the results of a comprehensive pathology study of NHP tissues collected at euthanasia to gain insights into EEEV pathogenesis. Viral RNA and proteins as well as microscopic lesions were absent in the visceral organs. In contrast, viral RNA and proteins were readily detected throughout the brain including autonomic nervous system (ANS) control centers and spinal cord. However, despite presence of viral RNA and proteins, majority of the brain and spinal cord tissues exhibited minimal or no microscopic lesions. The virus tropism was restricted primarily to neurons, and virus particles (~61–68 nm) were present within axons of neurons and throughout the extracellular spaces. However, active virus replication was absent or minimal in majority of the brain and was limited to regions proximal to the olfactory tract. These data suggest that EEEV initially replicates in/near the olfactory bulb following aerosol challenge and is rapidly transported to distal regions of the brain by exploiting the neuronal axonal transport system to facilitate neuron-to-neuron spread. Once within the brain, the virus gains access to the ANS control centers likely leading to disruption and/or dysregulation of critical physiological parameters to produce severe disease. Moreover, the absence of microscopic lesions strongly suggests that the underlying mechanism of EEEV pathogenesis is due to neuronal dysfunction rather than neuronal death. This study is the first comprehensive investigation into EEEV pathology in a NHP model and will provide significant insights into the evaluation of countermeasure. EEEV is an arbovirus endemic in parts of North America and is able to produce fatal encephalitis in humans and domesticated animals. Despite multiple human outbreaks during the last 80 years, there are still no therapeutic or vaccines to treat or prevent human disease. One critical obstacle in the development of effective countermeasure is the lack of insights into EEEV pathogenesis in a susceptible animal host. We recently conducted a study in cynomolgus macaques to investigate the disease course by measuring clinical parameters relevant to humans. Following infection, these parameters were rapidly and profoundly altered leading to severe disease. In this study, we examined the potential mechanisms that underlie pathogenesis to cause severe disease. The virus was present in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, however, minimal or no pathological lesions as well as active virus replication were observed. Additionally, neurons were the predominant target of EEEV infection and virus transport was facilitated via axonal transport system to spread neuron-to-neuron throughout the brain and spinal cord. These data show that EEEV likely hijacks essential transport system to rapidly spread in the brain and local/global neuronal dysfunction rather than neuronal death is the principal cause of severe disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janice A. Williams
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Simon Y. Long
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Xiankun Zeng
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kathleen Kuehl
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - April M. Babka
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Neil M. Davis
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jun Liu
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John C. Trefry
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sharon Daye
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paul R. Facemire
- Pathology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Patrick L. Iversen
- Therapeutics Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sina Bavari
- Office of the Commander, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Margaret L. Pitt
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Office of the Commander, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MLP); , (FN)
| | - Farooq Nasar
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MLP); , (FN)
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Denner J. The porcine virome and xenotransplantation. Virol J 2017; 14:171. [PMID: 28874166 PMCID: PMC5585927 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-017-0836-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The composition of the porcine virome includes viruses that infect pig cells, ancient virus-derived elements including endogenous retroviruses inserted in the pig chromosomes, and bacteriophages that infect a broad array of bacteria that inhabit pigs. Viruses infecting pigs, among them viruses also infecting human cells, as well as porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) are of importance when evaluating the virus safety of xenotransplantation. Bacteriophages associated with bacteria mainly in the gut are not relevant in this context. Xenotransplantation using pig cells, tissues or organs is under development in order to alleviate the shortage of human transplants. Here for the first time published data describing the viromes in different pigs and their relevance for the virus safety of xenotransplantation is analysed. In conclusion, the analysis of the porcine virome has resulted in numerous new viruses being described, although their impact on xenotransplantation is unclear. Most importantly, viruses with known or suspected zoonotic potential were often not detected by next generation sequencing, but were revealed by more sensitive methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Denner
- Robert Koch Fellow, Robert Koch Institute, Nordufer, 20, Berlin, Germany.
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More S, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Calistri P, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin-Bastuji B, Good M, Gortázar Schmidt C, Michel V, Miranda MA, Nielsen SS, Raj M, Sihvonen L, Spoolder H, Stegeman JA, Thulke HH, Velarde A, Willeberg P, Winckler C, Baldinelli F, Broglia A, Dhollander S, Beltrán-Beck B, Kohnle L, Morgado J, Bicout D. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western). EFSA J 2017; 15:e04946. [PMID: 32625598 PMCID: PMC7010142 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western) has been assessed according to the criteria of the Animal Health Law (AHL), in particular criteria of Article 7 on disease profile and impacts, Article 5 on the eligibility of equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western) to be listed, Article 9 for the categorisation of equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western) according to disease prevention and control rules as in Annex IV, and Article 8 on the list of animal species related to equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western). The assessment has been performed following a methodology composed of information collection and compilation, expert judgement on each criterion at individual and, if no consensus was reached before, also at collective level. The output is composed of the categorical answer, and for the questions where no consensus was reached, the different supporting views are reported. Details on the methodology used for this assessment are explained in a separate opinion. According to the assessment performed, equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western) can be considered eligible to be listed for Union intervention as laid down in Article 5(3) of the AHL. The disease would comply with the criteria as in Section 5 of Annex IV of the AHL, for the application of the disease prevention and control rules referred to in point (e) of Article 9(1). The assessment here performed on compliance with the criteria as in Section 4 of Annex IV referred to in point (d) of Article 9(1) is inconclusive. The animal species to be listed for equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern and Western) according to Article 8(3) criteria are several species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians as susceptible species; rodents, lagomorphs and several bird species as reservoirs and at least four mosquito species (family Culicidae) as vectors.
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Pandya J, Gorchakov R, Wang E, Leal G, Weaver SC. A vaccine candidate for eastern equine encephalitis virus based on IRES-mediated attenuation. Vaccine 2012; 30:1276-82. [PMID: 22222869 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2011] [Revised: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
To develop an effective vaccine against eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), we engineered a recombinant EEE virus (EEEV) that was attenuated and capable of replicating only in vertebrate cells, an important safety feature for live vaccines against mosquito-borne viruses. The subgenomic promoter was inactivated with 13 synonymous mutations and expression of the EEEV structural proteins was placed under the control of an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) derived from encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV). We tested this vaccine candidate for virulence, viremia and efficacy in the murine model. A single subcutaneous immunization with 10(4) infectious units protected 100% of mice against intraperitoneal challenge with a highly virulent North American EEEV strain. None of the mice developed any signs of disease or viremia after immunization or following challenge. Our findings suggest that the IRES-based attenuation approach can be used to develop a safe and effective vaccine against EEE and other alphaviral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna Pandya
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States
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Shan T, Li L, Simmonds P, Wang C, Moeser A, Delwart E. The fecal virome of pigs on a high-density farm. J Virol 2011; 85:11697-708. [PMID: 21900163 PMCID: PMC3209269 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05217-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine are an important source of proteins worldwide but are subject to frequent viral outbreaks and numerous infections capable of infecting humans. Modern farming conditions may also increase viral transmission and potential zoonotic spread. We describe here the metagenomics-derived virome in the feces of 24 healthy and 12 diarrheic piglets on a high-density farm. An average of 4.2 different mammalian viruses were shed by healthy piglets, reflecting a high level of asymptomatic infections. Diarrheic pigs shed an average of 5.4 different mammalian viruses. Ninety-nine percent of the viral sequences were related to the RNA virus families Picornaviridae, Astroviridae, Coronaviridae, and Caliciviridae, while 1% were related to the small DNA virus families Circoviridae, and Parvoviridae. Porcine RNA viruses identified, in order of decreasing number of sequence reads, consisted of kobuviruses, astroviruses, enteroviruses, sapoviruses, sapeloviruses, coronaviruses, bocaviruses, and teschoviruses. The near-full genomes of multiple novel species of porcine astroviruses and bocaviruses were generated and phylogenetically analyzed. Multiple small circular DNA genomes encoding replicase proteins plus two highly divergent members of the Picornavirales order were also characterized. The possible origin of these viral genomes from pig-infecting protozoans and nematodes, based on closest sequence similarities, is discussed. In summary, an unbiased survey of viruses in the feces of intensely farmed animals revealed frequent coinfections with a highly diverse set of viruses providing favorable conditions for viral recombination. Viral surveys of animals can readily document the circulation of known and new viruses, facilitating the detection of emerging viruses and prospective evaluation of their pathogenic and zoonotic potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongling Shan
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Zoonosis and Comparative Medicine Group, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Linlin Li
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Peter Simmonds
- Centre for Immunology, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Chunlin Wang
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford, California
| | - Adam Moeser
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Eric Delwart
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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Wang E, Petrakova O, Adams AP, Aguilar PV, Kang W, Paessler S, Volk SM, Frolov I, Weaver SC. Chimeric Sindbis/eastern equine encephalitis vaccine candidates are highly attenuated and immunogenic in mice. Vaccine 2007; 25:7573-81. [PMID: 17904699 PMCID: PMC2094013 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.07.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2007] [Revised: 07/17/2007] [Accepted: 07/28/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We developed chimeric Sindbis (SINV)/eastern equine encephalitis (EEEV) viruses and investigated their potential for use as live virus vaccines against EEEV. One vaccine candidate contained structural protein genes from a typical North American EEEV strain, while the other had structural proteins from a naturally attenuated Brazilian isolate. Both chimeric viruses replicated efficiently in mammalian and mosquito cell cultures and were highly attenuated in mice. Vaccinated mice did not develop detectable disease or viremia, but developed high titers of neutralizing antibodies. Upon challenge with EEEV, mice vaccinated with >10(4) PFU of the chimeric viruses were completely protected from disease. These findings support the potential use of these SIN/EEEV chimeras as safe and effective vaccines.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Body Temperature
- Body Weight
- Cells, Cultured
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- DNA, Recombinant/genetics
- DNA, Recombinant/immunology
- Encephalitis Virus, Eastern Equine/genetics
- Encephalitis Virus, Eastern Equine/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Eastern Equine/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Eastern Equine/prevention & control
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Female
- Mice
- Plasmids/genetics
- Plasmids/immunology
- Pregnancy
- Sindbis Virus/genetics
- Sindbis Virus/immunology
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/genetics
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vero Cells
- Viral Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Eryu Wang
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Olga Petrakova
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - A. Paige Adams
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Patricia V. Aguilar
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Wenli Kang
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Slobodan Paessler
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Sara M. Volk
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Ilya Frolov
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555
- *Correspondence: Scott C. Weaver, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609. Telephone (409) 747-0758. Fax (409) 747-2415.
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Farrar MD, Miller DL, Baldwin CA, Stiver SL, Hall CL. Eastern equine encephalitis in dogs. J Vet Diagn Invest 2006; 17:614-7. [PMID: 16475527 DOI: 10.1177/104063870501700619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is an Alphavirus that is endemic in the Southeastern United States. From 1993 to January 2005, the Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Laboratory in Tifton, Georgia, performed postmortem examinations on over 101 domestic canines exhibiting clinical neurological disturbances. In 12 of these dogs, brains were histologically suggestive of infection with EEEV. All dogs were less than 6 months of age, with no breed predilection. Clinical signs included pyrexia, depression, nystagmus, and lateral recumbency. Microscopically, brains from all 12 puppies contained infiltrates of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and histiocytes, with occasional neutrophils and random foci of astrocytosis and gliosis. There were mild to moderate perivascular infiltrates of neutrophils along with scattered lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages in the meninges. Viruses isolated from brain homogenates of all 12 puppies were confirmed by indirect fluorescent antibody testing to be EEEV. Additionally, RNA extracted from the brains and viral cultures of 2 dogs were determined by a specific reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to contain EEEV. The single available serum sample exhibited a 1:8 serum neutralization titer to EEEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele D Farrar
- The University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Laboratory, Tifton 31793, USA
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Tizard I. The protective properties of milk and colostrum in non-human species. ADVANCES IN NUTRITIONAL RESEARCH 2001; 10:139-66. [PMID: 11795038 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0661-4_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- I Tizard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
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Elvinger F, Baldwin CA, Liggett AD, Tang KN, Stallknecht DE. Prevalence of exposure to eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in domestic and feral swine in Georgia. J Vet Diagn Invest 1996; 8:481-4. [PMID: 8953536 DOI: 10.1177/104063879600800414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- F Elvinger
- Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigational Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Tifton 31794, USA
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