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Pirhadi R, Sinai Talaulikar V, Onwude J, Manyonda I. Could Estrogen Protect Women From COVID-19? J Clin Med Res 2020; 12:634-639. [PMID: 33029269 PMCID: PMC7524561 DOI: 10.14740/jocmr4303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The apparent gender differences in favor of women in the risk of contracting and dying from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and the fact that such trends have also been observed in recent epidemics including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), have prompted the obvious question: Are the reasons life-style or biological? True, women generally make healthier lifestyle choices as compared to men. Women do not smoke or drink as much as men, and they have a lower burden of those diseases (heart disease, diabetes or chronic lung conditions) that are known to be significant factors in the higher death rates among men with COVID-19. But there is compelling evidence for a role for biological factors. Genes are likely to play an important role. The X chromosome, of which women possess two, contains the largest number of immune-related genes of the whole human genome, theoretically giving women double the advantage over men in mounting an efficient and rapid immune response. A fundamental difference between women and men is their hormonal milieu, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the dominant female hormone estrogen could influence the response to infection. In this paper we evaluate the evidence and mechanisms by which estrogen could provide protection to women from a variety of viruses, perhaps including the coronavirus that causes COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanna Pirhadi
- Faculty of Health, Education, Medicine and Social Care, Anglia Ruskin University, Second Floor William Harvey Building, Bishop Hall Lane, Chelmsford CM1 1SQ, UK
| | - Vikram Sinai Talaulikar
- Reproductive Medicine Unit, EGA Wing, University College London Hospital, 235 Euston Road, London NW1 2BU, UK
| | - Joseph Onwude
- The Chelmsford Private Day Surgery Hospital, Fenton House, 85-89 New London Road, Chelmsford CM2 0PP, UK
| | - Isaac Manyonda
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust/St George's, University of London, London, UK
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The immunologic effects of estrogen on psoriasis: A comprehensive review. Int J Womens Dermatol 2015; 1:104-107. [PMID: 28491968 PMCID: PMC5418742 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijwd.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immunological changes in pregnancy are associated with improvements in some pre-existing immune-mediated skin diseases. Estrogen has been hypothesized to contribute to these changes by creating a shift from Th1 and Th17 to Th2 immunity. As this hypothesis would predict, psoriasis (a primarily Th17 mediated immune disease) tends to improve during pregnancy. However, the precise mechanism by which estrogen induces immunological change in psoriasis remains poorly understood. OBJECTIVE To summarize the immunologic effects of estrogen as they relate to psoriasis during pregnancy. METHODS We performed an English-language PubMed search of articles from September 2004 to September 2014 combining the key terms "psoriasis," "estrogen," "autoimmune disease," and "pregnancy." RESULTS Estrogen appears to up-regulate Th2 cytokines and down-regulate Th1 and Th17 cytokines. This shift was initially observed in murine systems, which showed decreased mixed lymphocyte reactions of splenocytes and increased antibody production during pregnancy. Antigen stimulated splenocytes produced fewer Th1 cytokines and more Th2 cytokines in pregnant mice. IL17 producing T cells were significantly decreased in healthy pregnancies compared to non-pregnant controls. LIMITATIONS This review is limited by the paucity of studies evaluating immunological changes of psoriasis in pregnancy among human subjects. CONCLUSIONS Increased estrogen production in pregnancy is associated with decreased Th1 and Th17 cytokine production. While estrogen may be responsible for some of these immune shifts resulting in disease improvement, there remains no definitive evidence to prove the hypothesis that estrogen is responsible for such improvement.
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de Medeiros SF, Maitelli A. Cellular and humoral immune responses after short-term oral hormone therapy in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 2011; 14:677-82. [DOI: 10.3109/13697137.2011.570387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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d'Elia HF, Carlsten H. The impact of hormone replacement therapy on humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in vivo in post-menopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Immunol 2008; 68:661-7. [PMID: 19086108 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that oestrogen has immunomodulatory properties. We have previously shown disease ameliorating effects of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in post-menopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of HRT and the patients inflammatory state on humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. Eighty-eight post-menopausal RA women were allocated to receive HRT (oestradiol and noretisterone acetate), vitamin D3 and calcium or vitamin D3 and calcium alone in a 2-year randomized controlled trial. Immunoglobulins (IgM, IgG and IgA) in serum were measured by nephelometry and rheumatoid factor (RF) concentration by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Immunization with influenza vaccine was performed to quantitate humoral response to recall antigen and tuberculin skin test with purified protein derivative (PPD) to test T-cell-mediated immune response. These immune related measures were correlated with demographic and disease-related variables. HRT during 2 years did not alter concentrations of Ig, RF, IgM response to influenza vaccine or the PPD reaction. The increase in IgM against influenza vaccine was significantly positively correlated with signs of disease activity; C-reactive protein, disease activity score 28 and inversely with haemoglobin. In contrast, PPD reactivity was inversely associated with disease activity. In conclusion, long-term HRT in RA does not influence Ig or autoantibody concentrations in serum and has no significant impact on humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to recall antigens. Interestingly, high disease activity was associated to increased humoral but decreased cell-mediated immune responses irrespectively of hormone treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Forsblad d'Elia
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Stopińska-Głuszak U, Jóźwiak J, Radomski D, Głuszak O, Roszkowski PI, Malejczyk J. Relationship between serum progesterone and tumor necrosis factor production in postmenopausal women undergoing estrogen/medroxyprogesterone therapy. Fertil Steril 2008; 91:1344-6. [PMID: 18554598 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2006] [Revised: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 03/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Changes in tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells significantly correlated with serum P levels in postmenopausal women subjected to estrogen/medroxyprogesterone therapy. This may suggest that low physiologic or hormone therapy-related changes of serum P in healthy postmenopausal women may affect an ability of peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes to produce TNF, thus having an impact on a variety of TNF-dependent physiologic and pathologic phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula Stopińska-Głuszak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Center of Biostructure Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Gao Q, Li J, Cheung JKH, Duan J, Ding A, Cheung AWH, Zhao K, Li WZ, Dong TT, Tsim KWK. Verification of the formulation and efficacy of Danggui Buxue Tang (a decoction of Radix Astragali and Radix Angelicae Sinensis): an exemplifying systematic approach to revealing the complexity of Chinese herbal medicine formulae. Chin Med 2007; 2:12. [PMID: 18045504 PMCID: PMC2140262 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8546-2-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This article exemplifies a systematic approach to revealing the complexity of Chinese herbal medicine formulae through three levels of scientific research: standardization of herbs, verification of ancient formulae and mechanism studies. We use Danggui Buxue Tang (DBT) as an example for this approach. Among thousands of traditional Chinese medicine herbal formulae, almost all of which consist of multiple herbs, DBT is one of the simplest. Containing only two herbs, namely Radix Astragali (RA) and Radix Angelicae Sinensis (RAS), DBT is traditionally used to treat ailments in women. The weight ratio of RA to RAS in DBT was prescribed to be 5:1 as early as in 1247 AD. In addition to advanced chemical analysis of herbal constituents, DNA genotyping techniques have been developed for reliable standardization of RA and RAS. Chemical evaluation shows that main active constituents in DBT, including astragaloside IV, calycosin, formononetin and ferulic acid, were most abundant after extraction at the RA to RAS ratio of 5:1, whereas other tested RA to RAS ratios only gave sub-optimal levels of the active constituents. Biological evaluation indicates that bioactivities of DBT, e.g. immuno-modulatory, oesteotropic and estrogenic effects are also best exerted at the RA to RAS ratio of 5:1. Correlation analysis demonstrates statistically significant relationship between the tested chemical constituents and tested bioactivities. Up- and down-regulation of expression of some genes as potential biomarkers has been detected by using gene chip technology. This systematic approach on the basis of herbal standardization, chemical and biological verification and mechanism studies, as exemplified in this article, will be useful to reveal the complexity of not only DBT but also other Chinese medicine herbal formulae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiutao Gao
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jerry Ka Hei Cheung
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jinao Duan
- Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Dadao, Xianlin University Town, Nanjing 210046, China
| | - Anwei Ding
- Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Dadao, Xianlin University Town, Nanjing 210046, China
| | - Anna Wing Han Cheung
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kuijun Zhao
- Beijing Friendship Hospital (an affiliate of the Capital Medical University), 95 Yongan Road, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Winnie Zhuoming Li
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Tina Tingxia Dong
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Karl Wah Keung Tsim
- Department of Biology and the Center for Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Stopińska-Głuszak U, Waligóra J, Grzela T, Głuszak M, Jóźwiak J, Radomski D, Roszkowski PI, Malejczyk J. Effect of estrogen/progesterone hormone replacement therapy on natural killer cell cytotoxicity and immunoregulatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of postmenopausal women. J Reprod Immunol 2005; 69:65-75. [PMID: 16236362 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2005.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2004] [Revised: 07/06/2005] [Accepted: 07/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroids are known to affect immune responses; however, information on immunomodulatory effects of estrogen/progesterone hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is still limited. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of estrogen/medroxyprogesterone HRT on natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and immunoregulatory cytokine (IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-gamma) release by phytohemaglutinin (PHA)-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from 15 selected healthy postmenopausal women. NK cell cytotoxicity, cytokine production and serum levels of 17beta-estradiol (E2), progesterone (P) and FSH were tested in each patient before and after 90-days HRT. NK cell cytotoxicity was tested by (51)Cr-release assay using K562 erythroleukemic cells as target. Specific cytokine production and serum hormone levels were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunochemiluminescent assays, respectively. HRT resulted in a significant decrease of Kupperman index, an increase of E2 and a decrease of FSH levels. These changes were associated with a significant decrease of NK cell cytotoxicity, IL-2 and IFN-gamma production. The levels of IL-4 production remained unchanged. Changes of NK cell cytotoxicity and cytokine release in individual patients did not correlate with changes of serum sex hormone levels. Nevertheless, the present results imply strongly that estrogen/progesterone HRT may affect cell-mediated immunity, thus being a potential factor influencing development and course of autoimmune disorders and neoplastic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula Stopińska-Głuszak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Center of Biostructure Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Chałubińskiego 5, PL-02004 Warsaw, Poland
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Bonamonte D, Foti C, Antelmi AR, Biscozzi AM, Naro ED, Fanelli M, Loverro G, Angelini G. Nickel contact allergy and menstrual cycle. Contact Dermatitis 2005; 52:309-13. [PMID: 15932580 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00588.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
According to some reports in the literature, the hormonal fluctuations which occur during the menstrual cycle may affect the clinical expression of contact allergy to a greater or lesser degree. In clinical practice, too, patient history often shows exacerbation of the contact dermatitis during the days immediately preceding menstruation. On the contrary, the follicular phase of the cycle seems to have a temporary protective role in inhibiting the eliciting phase of allergic contact dermatitis. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is of immunological type: it has been demonstrated that oestradiol induces inhibition of delayed hypersensitivity type reactions, probably by acting indirectly on cells having a regulatory function in cell-mediated immunity. To investigate any inhibitory effect of the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle on contact sensitization, 30 selected fertile women, allergic to nickel sulfate and with a regular menstrual cycle lasting between 25 and 32 days, were enrolled. Patch tests were performed with a series of 10 serial aqueous dilutions of nickel sulfate, from 5% to 0.0013%. The 30 women were tested at 2 different times, in the ovulatory phase (demonstrated by transvaginal ultrasound) and the progestinic phase; they were subdivided into 2 groups of 15 women: in one group, the tests were made first in the ovulatory phase, and in the other, first in the progestinic phase of the menstrual cycle. There was a minimum interval of 5 weeks between the 2 test phases. The study shows that during ovulation the patch tests elicited significantly less intense responses than in the progestinic phase. These data therefore suggest that the ovulatory phase of the cycle has a significant inhibitory role on delayed hypersensitivity type reactions. For this reason, negative responses to patch tests executed in this phase could likely be false-negatives, and after careful evaluation of the phenomenon and of the clinical condition and patient history, it may be considered advisable to repeat the tests during the progestinic phase of the menstrual cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Bonamonte
- Department of Internal Medicine, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Section of Dermatology, University of Bari, Bari, Italy.
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Biglia N, Gadducci A, Ponzone R, Roagna R, Sismondi P. Hormone replacement therapy in cancer survivors. Maturitas 2005; 48:333-46. [PMID: 15283925 DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2003.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2003] [Revised: 09/09/2003] [Accepted: 09/11/2003] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Thousands of women are treated each year for cancer; many of these are already in menopause, while other younger patients will go into early menopause due to surgery, or chemotherapy, or the need for radiotherapy to the pelvic region. In most cases the oncologist and the gynaecologist would advise these women against the use of HRT. The purpose of this paper is to review biological and clinical evidences in favour and against HRT use in the different tumours and to propose an algorithm that can help choosing the treatment for the single woman. METHODS We performed a systematic literature review through April 2002 concerning: (1) biological basis of hormonal modulation of tumour growth; (2) epidemiological data on the impact of HRT on different cancers risk in healthy women; (3) safety of HRT use in cancer survivors; (4) alternatives to HRT. RESULTS With the exception of meningioma, breast and endometrial cancer, there is no biological evidence that HRT may increase recurrence risk. In women with previous breast and endometrial cancer HRT is potentially hazardous on a biological basis, even if published data do not show any worsening of prognosis. CONCLUSIONS Even if a cautious approach to hormonal-dependent neoplasias is fully comprehensible and the available alternative treatment should be taken into greater consideration, the reticence to prescribe HRT in women previously treated for other non hormone-related tumours has neither a biological nor a clinical basis. An algorithm based on present knowledge is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Biglia
- Academic Department of Gynaecological Oncology, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (IRCC), University of Turin, Candiolo, Largo Turati 62, 10128 Torino, Italy
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Nelson RA, Levine AM, Bernstein L. Reproductive factors and risk of intermediate- or high-grade B-Cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in women. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19:1381-7. [PMID: 11230482 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2001.19.5.1381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The incidence rates of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) unrelated to human immunodeficiency virus infection are lower for women than for men; yet, few factors have been identified that may account for this difference in risk. NHL is difficult to study epidemiologically because this disorder represents a group of malignancies that differ in terms of morphologic presentation, immunologic features, genetic characteristics, prognosis, and etiology. PATIENTS AND METHODS We conducted a population-based case-control study in women to determine whether reproductive factors or hormonal exposures might be related to the risk of high- or intermediate-grade B-cell NHL. We interviewed 177 female residents of Los Angeles County who were diagnosed with high- or intermediate-grade B-cell NHL between 1989 and 1992; each case patient was individually matched on age and race to a control subject who lived in her neighborhood. RESULTS Women who had used oral contraceptives had significantly lower risk of intermediate- or high-grade NHL (multivariate odds ratio [OR] = 0.47; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.26 to 0.86) than women who had never used these compounds. Among parous women, those who had used lactation suppressants (which contain high levels of estrogen) had significantly lower risk of NHL (multivariate OR = 0.50; 95% CI, 0.29 to 0.85) than unexposed women. Postmenopausal women had a somewhat greater risk of NHL than premenopausal women, whereas those postmenopausal women who had used hormone replacement therapy (HRT) (primarily estrogen) had somewhat lower risk than those who had not used HRT. CONCLUSION Exogenous estrogens seem to have a protective effect on the risk of high- and intermediate-grade B-cell NHL. Although the mechanisms for such protection are not known, alterations in immune reactivity, cytokine expression, or B-cell modulation may play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Nelson
- Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Ohmoto Y, Takeji T, Yasui T, Aono T. Postmenopausal changes in serum cytokine levels and hormone replacement therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184:309-14. [PMID: 11228479 DOI: 10.1067/mob.2001.109940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our purpose was to investigate the effect of hormone replacement therapy on the postmenopausal changes in serum cytokine levels. STUDY DESIGN Fifteen cytokines were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 97 untreated and hormone replacement-treated women. Thirteen women were examined before and during hormone replacement therapy. RESULTS Serum concentrations of macrophage colony-stimulating factor were significantly (P < .05) lower during the early postmenopausal period (< or = 10 years) than the values in premenopause and the elevated levels in the late postmenopausal period (< or = 30 years). A significant increase in tumor necrosis factor alpha and a decline in transforming growth factor beta1 were found in late postmenopausal women. Serum levels of macrophage colony-stimulating factor in women receiving hormone replacement therapy were significantly higher than those in untreated postmenopausal women. Furthermore, hormone replacement therapy induced a significant (P < .01) increase in serum levels of macrophage colony-stimulating factor, whereas serum levels of other cytokines were not affected. CONCLUSION It is well documented that macrophage colony-stimulating factor lowers serum cholesterol concentrations and prevents atherosclerosis. Inducing the production of macrophage colony-stimulating factor is a possible additional mechanism of hormone replacement therapy in mediating the antiatherogenic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kamada
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, The University of Tokushima, and the Cellular Technology Institute, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Company, Ltd, Tokushima, Japan
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Affiliation(s)
- G Balzano
- Pneumology Unit, Rehabilitation Institute of Telese Terme, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, Benevento, Italy
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Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Yasui T, Takeji T, Yamada M, Tezuka M, Kasai Y, Aono T. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on post-menopausal changes of lymphocytes and T cell subsets. J Endocrinol Invest 2000; 23:376-82. [PMID: 10908165 DOI: 10.1007/bf03343741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Immunosenescence is associated with the occurrence of lethal diseases, such as infection and malignancy. Since endocrinosenescence occurs simultaneously with immunosenescence, we determined whether or not lymphocytes and T cell subsets were altered in post-menopausal women. The ability of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to reverse or modify the aberrations of the cell populations observed in elderly women was also examined. Thirty-nine untreated post-menopausal women and 39 women on HRT were studied. The proportions of lymphocytes and T cell subsets (helper, cytotoxic and immature T cells, and naive and memory/activated T cells) were determined by two color flow cytometry. Thirteen women were examined before and during HRT. At late post-menopause (> or = 30 years post-menopausal period), the proportion of peripheral blood lymphocytes showed a tendency to decline (p=0.06) compared with that at early (< or = 10 years) post-menopause. Significant (p<0.05) decrease in naive T cells and an increase in memory/activated T cells occurred at late post-menopause compared to those at early post-menopause. The percentage of lymphocytes in women on HRT was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that in untreated women at late post-menopausal stage. Furthermore, in a prospective study, HRT induced a significant (p<0.02) increase in the percentage of lymphocytes but showed no effect on the aberrations of naive and memory/activated T cells. HRT prevents the decline in the lymphocytes observed in post-menopausal women. However, HRT appears not to influence the observed alteration in T cell subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kamada
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Tokushima, Japan
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Hough HJ, Failla ML, Ludwig DA. Active lifestyle offsets HRT-induced suppression of T cell reactivity to mitogens. Maturitas 1999; 33:211-8. [PMID: 10656499 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-5122(99)00074-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of the study was to investigate the combined impact of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and active lifestyle on the phenotypic profile and in vitro activities of specific immune cells in postmenopausal women. METHODS Healthy postmenopausal women aged 45-70 were assigned to one of four groups: (a) HRT/sedentary (n = 9); (b) HRT/active (n = 12); (c) no HRT/sedentary (n = 10); and (d) no HRT/active (n = 9). Blood samples were collected from each subject on 3 days within 1 week. The mean value of three samples was used to assess the in vitro response of T lymphocytes to the mitogens phytohemagglutinin and concanavalin A and natural killer cell activity. One of three blood samples was utilized for phenotypic analysis of circulating leukocytes. RESULTS The mitogenic reactivity of T lymphocytes in whole blood cultures for the groups receiving HRT was lower than from the groups not receiving HRT. There also was a trend for T lymphocyte reactivity to be higher in the active women when compared to the sedentary women. In contrast, the phenotypic profile of leukocytes and natural killer cell activity were not significantly different for samples collected from the four groups. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that the suppressive effect of HRT on T cell function in postmenopausal women may be attenuated by a physically active lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Hough
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 27402, USA
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Komlos L, Zahavi Z, Dicker D, Luria D, Salman H, Zahavi I. In vitro modulation of activation antigens on human lymphocytes by beta-estradiol. Am J Reprod Immunol 1998; 40:418-23. [PMID: 9894566 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.1998.tb00428.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM The possible in vitro immunomodulating effect of beta-estradiol on phytohemagglutinin-stimulated human lymphocyte cultures was studied. METHOD OF STUDY Lymphocyte cultures from 12 healthy men and women aged 25-35 years were set up for 12 hr in the presence and in the absence of beta-estradiol, and the expression of the activation markers CD25, CD69, and CD71 was examined by flow cytometric analysis with specific fluorescent conjugated antibodies. RESULTS Although the number of cases is small, in 10 of 12 cases in the presence of beta-estradiol in two different concentrations, a significantly decreased expression of CD69 could be observed. A slight decrease could also be observed for the Interleukin-2 receptor expression; however, the difference, in the presence or absence of beta-estradiol, was not significant. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that in vitro addition of beta-estradiol can inhibit, to a certain degree, specific activation markers on phytohemagglutinin-stimulated lymphocytes from young men and women. The present study could not define the role of sex differences because of the small number of samples. A comparison between men and women at various ages in a greater number of cases, as well as studies on activation markers after treatments with estrogens, would be useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Komlos
- Research Institute for Human Reproduction, Rabin Medical Center, Petach Tiqva, Israel
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Bartlett JA, Schleifer SJ, Demetrikopoulos MK, Delaney BR, Shiflett SC, Keller SE. Immune function in healthy adolescents. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 1998; 5:105-13. [PMID: 9455890 PMCID: PMC121401 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.5.1.105-113.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, we examine immunological functioning in normal healthy African-American and Latino/Latina adolescents recruited from an inner-city high school and an inner-city clinic. A battery of tests was performed with enumerative and functional measures which encompassed both innate and adaptive immunity. We found immune differences related to age, gender, and race on both the enumerative and the functional immune measures. This data expands the available body of information concerning normal immunity in healthy adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Bartlett
- Department of Psychiatry, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark 07107-3000, USA.
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Maini MK, Gilson RJ, Chavda N, Gill S, Fakoya A, Ross EJ, Phillips AN, Weller IV. Reference ranges and sources of variability of CD4 counts in HIV-seronegative women and men. Genitourin Med 1996; 72:27-31. [PMID: 8655163 PMCID: PMC1195587 DOI: 10.1136/sti.72.1.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CD4 lymphocyte counts are used to monitor immune status in HIV disease. An understanding of the variability of CD4 counts which occurs in the absence of HIV infection is essential to their interpretation. The sources and degree of such variability have not been extensively studied. OBJECTIVES To establish reference ranges for CD4 counts in HIV-seronegative women and heterosexual men attending a genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinic, and to identify possible differences according to gender and cigarette smoking and, in women, any effect of the menstrual cycle, oral contraceptive use and cigarette smoking. DESIGN Female and heterosexual male patients attending a GUM clinic and requesting an HIV-antibody test were recruited prospectively. Results from an earlier study of CD4 counts in homosexual men were available for comparison. METHODS Lymphocyte subpopulation analysis on whole blood by flow cytometry. RESULTS The absolute CD4 count and percentage of CD4 cells (CD4%) were significantly higher in women (n = 195) than heterosexual men (n = 91) [difference between the means 111 x 106/1 (95% CI 41, 180) and 3.1% (1.30, 4.88)]. The absolute CD4 count and CD4% were also significantly higher in smokers (n = 143) than non-smokers (n = 140) [difference 143 (79, 207) and 2.1% (0.43, 3.81)]. Reference ranges for absolute CD4 counts (geometric mean +/- 2SD) were calculated on log transformed data as follows; female smokers 490-1610, female non-smokers 430-1350, heterosexual male smokers 380-1600, heterosexual male non-smokers 330-1280. Among other variables examined, combined oral contraceptive pill use was associated with a trend towards a lower absolute CD4 count. Changes were seen in CD4% with the menstrual cycle. CD4 counts and CD4% did not differ significantly between heterosexual men and homosexual men (n = 45). CONCLUSION There is a significant gender and smoking effect on CD4 counts. The effects of oral contraceptive use and the menstrual cycle warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Maini
- Department of Genitourinary Medicine, Camden and Islington Community Health Services NHS Trust, London, UK
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Evagelatou M, Farrant J. Effect of 17 beta-estradiol on immunoglobulin secretion by human tonsillar lymphocytes in vitro. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1994; 48:171-7. [PMID: 8142292 DOI: 10.1016/0960-0760(94)90142-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Sex steroid hormones play a role in the complex network of immune responses but the mechanism of their action is still unclear. Effects of a wide range of doses of 17 beta-estradiol (E2: 0.2-100 ng/ml) on human tonsillar lymphocyte cultures were examined. B and T lymphocyte enriched preparations were stimulated with various concentrations of interleukin-2 and the production of immunoglobulin was measured. Addition of E2 increased B cell immunoglobulin production in a T cell dependent way with intact T cells being obligatory. The effects of E2 were also examined on DNA synthesis by tonsillar T cells. E2 alone caused a significant increase in T cell DNA synthesis. With phytohaemagglutinin-stimulated T cell cultures there was a significant increase in DNA synthesis with E2 at pharmacological doses. Different cell surface and activation markers (including CD25, p75, HLA-DR, CD28) on tonsillar lymphocytes were also studied after exposure to E2. The presence of E2 made no significant difference in the expression of the markers either alone or when the activation antigens were induced by other stimuli. We have shown that intact T cells are needed for the action of E2 on tonsillar B lymphocyte differentiation and have excluded several mechanisms of action of E2 since common activation antigens are unaffected.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Evagelatou
- Immunodeficiency Diseases Research Group, MRC Clinical Research Centre, Harrow, England
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Smith R, Studd JW. A Pilot Study of the Effect upon Multiple Sclerosis of the Menopause, Hormone Replacement Therapy and the Menstrual Cycle. J R Soc Med 1992; 85:612-3. [PMID: 1433038 PMCID: PMC1293688 DOI: 10.1177/014107689208501008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A questionnaire enquiring about changes in severity of symptoms of multiple sclerosis with the menstrual cycle, menopause and use of hormone replacement therapy was answered retrospectively by 11 premenopausal and 19 postmenopausal women. Eighty-two per cent of menopausal women reported an increase in severity premenstrually. Of the postmenopausal women 54% reported a worsening of symptoms with the menopause, and 75% of those who had tried hormone replacement therapy reported an improvement. The results of this pilot study indicate the need for further research to clarify the effects of the menopause and hormone replacement therapy upon multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Smith
- King's College Hospital, Denmark Hill, London
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Kabukoba JJ. Hormone replacement therapy by implant: the need to rethink. J OBSTET GYNAECOL 1992. [DOI: 10.3109/01443619209015520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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