Fast Track in the emergency department: a one-year experience with nurse practitioners

Queueing Problems in Emergency Departments: A Review of Practical Approaches and Research Methodologies

Problems related to patient scheduling and queueing in emergency departments are gaining increasing attention in theory, in the fields of operations research and emergency and healthcare services, and in practice. This paper aims to provide an extensive review of studies addressing queueing-related problems explicitly related to emergency departments. We have reviewed 229 articles and books spanning seven decades and have sought to organize the information they contain in a manner that is accessible and useful to researchers seeking to gain knowledge on specific aspects of such problems. We begin by presenting a historical overview of applications of queueing theory to healthcare-related problems. We subsequently elaborate on managerial approaches used to enhance efficiency in emergency departments. These approaches include bed management, fast-track, dynamic resource allocation, grouping/prioritization of patients, and triage approaches. Finally, we discuss scientific methodologies used to analyze and optimize these approaches: algorithms, priority models, queueing models, simulation, and statistical approaches.

Improving process quality for pediatric emergency department

PURPOSE

Overcrowding in emergency departments (EDs) leads to longer waiting times and results in higher number of patients leaving the ED without being seen by a physician. EDs need to improve quality for patients' waiting time and length of stay (LoS) from the perspective of process and flow control management. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

The retrospective case study was performed using the computerized ED patient time logs from arrival to discharge between July 1, 2009 and June 30, 2010. Patients were divided into two groups either adult or pediatric with a cutoff age of 18. Patients' characteristics were measured by arrival time periods, waiting times before being seen by a physician, total LoS and acuity levels. A discrete event simulation was applied to the comparison of quality performance measures.

FINDINGS

Statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in terms of arrival times, acuity levels, waiting time stratified for various arrival times and acuity levels. The process quality for pediatric patients could be improved by redesign of patient flow management and medical resource.

RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS

The results are limited to a case of one community and ED. This study did not analyze the characteristic of leaving the ED without being seen by a physician.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Separation of pediatric patients from adult patients in an ED can reduce the waiting time before being seen by a physician and the total staying time in the ED for pediatric patients. It can also lessen the chances for pediatric patients to leave the ED without being seen by a physician.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

A process and flow control management scheme based on patient group characteristics may improve service quality and lead to a better patient satisfaction in ED.

A new after-hours clinic model provides cost-saving, faster care compared with a pediatric emergency department

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the charges and length of stay of demographically and clinically matched nonemergent patients managed in a new After-Hours Clinic (AHC) model versus a pediatric emergency department (PED).

METHODS

Retrospective cross-sectional study conducted in a tertiary-care urban academic children's hospital. The AHC was off-site from the children's hospital emergency department. After-Hours Clinic patients were matched with PED patients for age, date and time of presentation, and chief complaint. The 95% confidence intervals for the difference in the means were used to compare the outcome variables of charges and length of stay.

RESULTS

Of 471 patients seen at AHC in January 2008, 130 were matched to PED patients for date and time of presentation, age, and chief complaint, giving 260 study patients. There was no significant difference between AHC and PED patients in relationship to date and time of presentation, sex, age, and chief complaint. Comparing the length of stay and charges between AHC and PED patients revealed a significant difference in each. The patient-visit length-of-stay mean time for the AHC was 81.2 minutes less than the mean time for the PED (95.6 vs 176.8 minutes). The patient-visit mean charge for the AHC was $236.20 less than the mean charge for the PED ($226.00 vs $462.20).

CONCLUSIONS

Our AHC model showed a significant reduction in length of stay and charges in compared demographically and clinically matched PED patients. This may be an effective model to help address emergency department overcrowding and promote patient safety.

Evidence‐based re‐engineering: re‐engineering the evidence

PURPOSE

Business process redesign (BPR) is used to implement organizational transformations towards more customer-focused and cost-effective care. Ideally, these innovations should be carefully described and evaluated so that "best practices" can be re-applied. To investigate this, available evidence was collected on patient care redesign projects.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

The Ebsco Business Source Premier, Embase and Medline databases were searched. Studies on innovations related to re-engineering patient care that used before-after design as minimum prerequisites were selected. General characteristics, logistic parameters and other outcome measures to determine the objectives and results and interventions used were looked at.

FINDINGS

A total of 86 studies that conformed to the criteria were found: a minority mentioned measurable parameters in their objectives. In the majority of studies, multiple interventions were combined within single studies, making it impossible to compare the effects of individual interventions. Only three randomized controlled trials were found. Furthermore, inconsistencies were noted between the study objectives and the reported results. Many more issues were reported in the results than were mentioned in the study aims. It would appear that publications were hard to find owing to a lack of specific MeSH headings. Nearly 7,500 abstracts were scanned and from these it was concluded that clear and univocal research methods, terms and reporting guidelines are advisable and must be developed in order to learn and benefit from BPR innovations in health care organizations.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

This appears to be the first time available evidence about redesign projects in hospitals has been systematically collected and assessed.

Evaluation of a Fast Track Unit

BACKGROUND

Emergency departments (EDs) are struggling with overcrowding. The Institute for Healthcare Improvement recently concluded that reducing delays is critical to improving all aspects of emergency care. To reduce cycle times and improve patient flow, we developed a separate stream of care focused on low-acuity patients in our academic ED.

METHODS

Strict triage criteria were developed, and patients were seen by a physician's assistant in a dedicated section of the ED. Two anonymous surveys (patient and staff) and a time cycle analysis were performed before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Eighty-seven preintervention patient surveys (response rate = 60%) and 91 postintervention surveys (response rate = 79%) were collected. Demographic data were comparable. All domains of patient satisfaction were significantly improved in the postintervention group and were correlated with the length of stay that decreased from 127 to 53 minutes (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports an emphasis on improving turnaround time as a primary driver of satisfaction, and demonstrates that a simple intervention characterized by focusing existing resources on the needs of a specific population can significantly improve health care delivery. Thoughtful alignment of resources with the needs of specific patient populations should similarly streamline care in other clinical settings.

Thrombolytic therapy use for acute myocardial infarction and outcome in Qatar

OBJECTIVE

Data on the outcome of patients treated with thrombolytic therapy in the Arab world is scarce. The main objective of this study is to study the 7-day morbidity and mortality rate and the rate of use of thrombolytic therapy in patients presenting with acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic therapy in the Middle East.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data for all patients who were admitted to Coronary Care Unit in Cardiology Department in Hamad Medical during the period (1991-2001). Patients were divided into two groups in relation to ethnicity whether they received thrombolysis or not. In each group, the number of patients, age at the time of admission, gender, cardiovascular risk profile, therapy and outcome in regard of in-hospital complication and 7-day death as primary end point were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the total 5388 patients admitted with acute myocardial infarction during the 10-year period, 66.3% (3567) with STE MI were found, 61.4% (2190) of them received thrombolytic therapy while 38.6% (1377) were not eligible for thrombolytic therapy. The remaining 33.7% (1821) were admitted with non-STE MI. In consideration of ethnic variation, patients with STE MI eligible for thrombolytic therapy, 29.6% (1598) were Qataris and 70.4% (3792) were non-Qataris. Thrombolytic therapy was administered to 25.9% (414) of Qatari patients and 51.3% (1947) of non-Qataris. The mortality rate of Qatari patients who received thrombolytic therapy was 9.2% (38) vs. 19.5% (231) who did not receive thrombolytic therapy (p<0.001). In non-Qatari patients, the mortality rate was 5.2% (102) for those who received thrombolytic therapy, while it was 8.6% (159) for those with no thrombolytic therapy (p<0.001). When compared to male patients, female patients with thrombolytic therapy had higher mortality rates (in both Qataris and non-Qataris) (20.5% vs. 6.1%; p value<0.001 and 16.1% vs. 9.4%; p<0.001, respectively), there were no significant differences between the ethnic groups in regard to in-hospital complications. Patients treated with thrombolytic therapy had lower incidence of in-hospital complication regarding acute heart failure, post-myocardial angina, heart block and arrhythmia. Thrombolytic therapy reduced mortality rate in acute myocardial infarction by 69%. Logistic regression analysis had shown that arrhythmia, acute heart failure, heart block, cardiogenic shock, diabetes mellitus and stroke were independent predictors of increased mortality. Thrombolysis was used in 61.4%, which is still underutilized when compared to a few available studies in the Gulf area, and to other studies in the developed world.

CONCLUSION

In the current study, use of thrombolysis in acute myocardial infarction was associated with significant decrease in in-hospital mortality and morbidity. Mortality rate was higher in the Qatari nationals when compared to non-Qataris. Reperfusion therapy may be underutilized in the developing world. Increased use of reperfusion therapy would result in reduced mortality rate. Global measures to encourage the use of reperfusion therapy including patients' education, and strategies to improve the health care system are needed.

Procedures taught in family nurse practitioner programs in the United States

PURPOSE

To determine the most frequently taught procedures and how important it is to teach these procedures in Family Nurse Practitioner (FNP) programs in the United States according to FNP program directors.

DATA SOURCES

Each of the 178 directors of FNP programs in the United States was mailed a survey to complete anonymously. The survey, designed for this study, listed 78 procedures. Directors were asked to indicate whether or not the procedure is taught in their FNP program and how important they think it is that FNP programs in the United States should teach that procedure. A total of 114 (64%) responded.

CONCLUSIONS

A total of 10 of the 78 procedures were taught in 50% or more of the FNP programs. These procedures were: obtaining Papanicolau smears, testing visual acuity, audiometry, tympanometry, splinting of extremities, interpreting 12-Lead electrocardiograms, interpreting blood gases, local infiltration of anesthetics, single layer wound closure, and fluorescein staining of the eyes. The directors believed that six of these were very important to teach in FNP programs.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The findings of this study can be used to plan course content related to procedures in new FNP programs or to revise course content in existing programs. The study results are helpful to individuals who develop continuing education courses to target skills that NPs may find valuable or may need for their current employment setting but were not taught in their educational programs.

A profile of nurse practitioners in emergency care settings

PURPOSE

To determine characteristics of nurse practitioners (NPs) who provide emergency care.

DATA SOURCES

Descriptive cross-sectional study of a convenience sample of 113 NPs in emergency care obtained from the online Resource Directory of Nurse Practitioners in Emergency Care.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of NPs in emergency care worked in facilities that were located in urban/suburban areas, were responsible for providing care in both the main emergency department and fast track area, held a Master of Science degree in nursing, obtained their education as a family nurse practitioner, and were certified as an NP by a national certifying agency. They were experienced registered nurses before becoming an NP but were relatively new to the NP role.

IMPLICATIONS

The results of this study provide information about characteristics of NPs who provide emergency care.

Systematic triage in the emergency department using the Australian National Triage Scale: a pilot project

The objective of this study was to evaluate the validity in Belgium of the National Triage Scale for judgement of the urgency of a patient's condition and making a case-mix description of the patient profiles in the different urgency categories. The study is of a descriptive retrospective and descriptive correlational design and was carried out in the emergency department at the University Hospital Gasthuisberg in Leuven, Belgium. The urgency of patients arriving at the emergency department was evaluated during one randomly selected shift a day over 12 weeks in 1997 by one of the four triage-educated nurses, using an instrument based on the National Triage Scale. Patient identification and outcome parameters were retrieved from the existing computer system. The data were mainly analysed using the Ridit analysis. Overall 3650 patients were evaluated: Category 1, 4.19%; Category 2, 24.44%; Category 3, 39.32%; Category 4, 27.97%; Category 5, 4.08%. Any similarity between sentinel diagnoses as well as between the admission percentages in this pilot study and the reference from Australia (Z = 0.827; p > 0.05) was noted. Different aspects influenced the triage nurses while determining the degree of urgency. Urgency categories profiles revealed a significant effect of age (Kruskall-Wallis = 530.5; p = 0.000). Higher categories of urgency resulted in a higher degree of admission (t (df = 3640) = 643.45; p = 0.000). It is concluded that a resemblance between the pilot study and the reference confirms the predictive validity of the scale used. Patient profiles in the different urgency categories give a description of the emergency department population.

Activities and procedures performed by nurse practitioners in emergency care settings

INTRODUCTION

Although nurse practitioners (NPs) have been practicing in emergency care (EC) settings for at least 25 years, little is known about the activities and procedures they perform.

METHODS

A questionnaire was sent by either by E-mail or US mail to a convenience sample of 96 subjects. These 96 NPs were instructed to duplicate the questionnaire and distribute it to other NPs they may know who also work in EC settings. The questionnaire contained 71 activities and procedures obtained from Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine by Roberts and Hedges. The NPs were asked to rate the 71 activities and procedures according to the frequency with which they performed them, where they learned to perform them, and how important they believe it is that NPs in EC settings know how to perform them.

RESULTS

Seventy-two NPs in EC settings responded. Fifty percent (n = 36) or more had performed 35 of the 71 activities and procedures. Almost every NP (n = 71) had used fluorescein staining, and only 3 procedures--culdocentesis, venous cutdown, and insertion of pins for skeletal traction--had never been performed. The majority of NPs learned to perform each of the activities and procedures through on-the-job training and continuing education courses. Fifty percent or more identified 56 activities and procedures as being important for NPs to know how to perform in EC settings.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study indicate that whereas 50% or more of the NPs in EC settings had performed 35 out of 71 activities and procedures, 50% or more indicated that a larger skill set of 56 activities and procedures is believed to be needed for practice.

Shaping advanced nursing practice in the new millennium

OBJECTIVES

To provide a review of converging themes and trends that are shaping advanced practice nursing roles in oncology nursing.

DATA SOURCES

Review and research articles, text-books, and organization documents.

CONCLUSIONS

The current managed care environment provides many opportunities and challenges for oncology advanced practice nurses. Advanced practice nurses have both clinical and organization competencies that enable them to mediate the clinical needs of patients and organization goals within the health care system.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

Advanced practice nurses can help shape their roles and practice by active participation in the development of systems to support access to clinical and financial information for effective decision making, collaboration among disciplines, and incorporating evidence-based care in their clinical practices.

Fast track and the pediatric emergency department: resource utilization and patients outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To examine differences in the evaluation, management, and outcomes for patients seen in an on-site "fast track" (FT) vs the main ED.

METHODS

Over a three-month period, patients presenting to an urban pediatric ED were prospectively assessed. Patients included were: triaged as "nonurgent"; aged 2 months to 10 years; not chronically ill; and had fever, or complaint of vomiting, diarrhea, or decreased oral intake. Evening and weekend care was provided in the FT; at all other times these low-acuity patients were seen in the ED. Seven days after the visit, families were interviewed by telephone.

RESULTS

Four hundred seventy-nine and 557 patients were seen in the FT and ED, respectively. The patients in the two settings did not differ in age, clinical condition, race, or commercial insurance status. Patient mean test charges were $27 and $52 for the FT and ED, respectively (p < 0.01). Twenty-four percent of the FT patients vs 41% of the ED patients had tests performed (p < 0.01). Average length of stay was 28 minutes shorter in the FT (95% CI = 19 to 36, p < 0.01). Follow-up was completed for 480 of 755 families with telephones (64%). The FT and ED patients did not differ at follow-up: 90% vs 88% had improved conditions (p = 0.53), 18% vs 15% had received unscheduled follow-up care (p = 0.44), and 94% of the families in both groups were satisfied with the visit (p = 0.98).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with those in the main ED, the study patients seen in the FT had fewer tests ordered and had briefer lengths of stay. These findings were not explained by differences in patient ages, vital signs, or demographic characteristics. No difference in final outcomes or satisfaction was detected among the families contacted for follow-up.

Societal savings by "fast tracking" lower acuity patients in an urban pediatric emergency department

To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a "fast track" system for diverting lower acuity patients away from the pediatric emergency department (ED), 4,060 patients triaged to the fast track area of an urban pediatric ED with the 10 most common discharge diagnoses from 1/1/94 through 12/31/94 were retrospectively evaluated. Patients triaged as having nonurgent concerns qualified for treatment in a separate fast track area for 8 hours per day (fast track patients). These patients were compared with 5,199 seen in the main pediatric ED for the same concerns during the remaining hours when the fast track was not in operation (ED patients). Computer records were reviewed for demographics, acuity levels, diagnosis, and collection ratios (revenues/charges). The societal savings was calculated as sigma $ [(delta mean revenue of diagnosis1-10 in the main ED - mean revenue of diagnosis1-10 in the fast track) x the number of patients seen in fast track for diagnosis1-10] stratified by acuity. Collection ratios were comparable between groups (57% v 62%), but the average charges (physician and facility) were significantly less for patients seen in the fast track by a ratio of 1:2.4 (P < .0001). The average net revenue was also significantly less for all patients seen in the fast track by a ratio of 1:2.6 (P < .0001). When stratified by diagnosis and acuity, the savings to society was $101,313, or an average of $25/patient seen in the fast track ($101,313 per 4,060). A fast track is an effective system for maintaining patient flow at a cost savings to society. It can help the hospital in its negotiations with payors because it curtails charges. It is also a potential means for maintaining overall departmental revenues as payors increasingly deny traditional pediatric ED visits for patients with lower acuity concerns.

Use of physician extenders and fast tracks in United States emergency departments

To describe current practice regarding the use of physician extenders (PEs) and the "fast track" (FT) concept in United States emergency departments (EDs), a telephone survey of 250 US health care facilities offering emergency services was conducted. Of the EDs surveyed, 21.6% were using PEs at the time of the survey, and of those not using PEs, 23.5% intended to do so within the next 2 years. Those using PEs had been using them for a mean duration of 3.5 years (the mode was 2 years). The mean number of hours of PE coverage was 11.4 hours on weekdays and 11.5 hours on weekends (the mode was 12 hours both on weekdays and weekends). In general, the use of PEs increased with increasing hospital size and ED census, in more urban settings, in teaching facilities, and in the Northeast region of the country. Thirty percent of EDs surveyed had FT, and of those that did not have FT at the time of the survey, 32.8% intended to institute FT within 2 years. Of those that had FT, the mean number of years in use was 2.4 (the mode was 2). The use of FT increased with increasing hospital size and ED census, in teaching hospitals, and in the Northeast region. FT was most common in the suburban setting. The mean estimated percentage of ED patients going through FT was 30.1%. The mean number of hours per day of FT operation was 13.4 hours on weekdays and 13.7 hours on weekends (the mode was 12 hours/day both on weekdays and weekends). Of hospitals using PEs in the ED, 56.0% had FT; of hospitals without PEs in the ED, 23.5% had FT.

"Fast tracking" patients in an urban pediatric emergency department

Modern health care reform emphasizes efficient resource and facility management and the need to develop strategies to direct patients with lower-acuity concerns away from the relatively cost-inefficient full-service pediatric emergency department (ED). This study examined a pediatric fast track system for triage accuracy and turnaround times. Egleston Children's Hospital is a regional, urban, tertiary-care academic center which is a major teaching affiliate of Emory University School of Medicine. The pediatric ED has an annual census of more than 30,000 patient encounters. During the 9-month period from December 1993 through August 1994, 2,243 lower-acuity patients were evaluated in the fast track section of the ED. Patients assigned to the fast track system maintained a quicker turnaround time than the aggregate of all patients seen in the ED (107 [95% CI 0, 245] minutes versus 149 [95% CI 0, 341] minutes, P < .01). Their total turnaround time was also less than that for patients with similar acuity levels seen during the hours that the fast track system was not in operation (120 [95% CI 0, 300 minutes], P < .01). Only 63 of the 2,243 (2.8%) patients assigned to fast track were found to have higher acuity levels than suspected at initial triage. In all cases they were appropriately cared for in the fast track area. The fast track system appears to be an effective method by which an urban pediatric ED can efficiently maintain patient flow in light of limited resources, space constraints, limited manpower, and an increasing census.

"Fast tracking" patients with a proximal femoral fracture

OBJECTIVE

To assess the management of elderly patients presenting to the accident and emergency (A&E) department with a proximal femoral fracture.

METHODS

A retrospective audit carried out on 30 patients with proximal femoral fracture showed an unacceptably long waiting time in the A&E department. A new "fast track" system for managing these patients, involving the use of a flow chart for expediting admission, was devised. A prospective study of 100 patients > 60 years of age with proximal femoral fracture admitted by fast track system was then carried out.

RESULTS

Implementation of the fast track system resulted in earlier admission to the ward (median time to admission 2.5 h v 4.5 h in the retrospective audit, P < 0.001). Eighteen patients were not admitted by fast track during the study period, in some cases because of inconclusive diagnosis or because there was no identifiable orthopaedic bed; mean admission time for this group was 4 h 8 min.

CONCLUSIONS

The fast track system was of benefit to all involved, including the patient, A&E staff, ward staff, and orthopaedic personnel.