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Semi-Preparative Separation, Absolute Configuration, Stereochemical Stability and Effects on Human Neuronal Cells of MDPV Enantiomers. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28052121. [PMID: 36903367 PMCID: PMC10003790 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28052121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, such as 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), are widely abused due to their psychostimulant effects. As they are chiral molecules, studies of their stereochemical stability (racemization can occur in certain temperatures and acidic/basic environments) and of their biological and/or toxicity effects (enantiomers might display different properties) are of great relevance. In this study, the liquid chromatography (LC) semi-preparative enantioresolution of MDPV was optimized to collect both enantiomers with high recovery rates and enantiomeric ratio (e.r.) values. The absolute configuration of the MDPV enantiomers was determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) with the aid of theoretical calculations. The first eluted enantiomer was identified as S-(-)-MDPV and the second eluted enantiomer was identified as R-(+)-MDPV. A racemization study was performed by LC-UV, showing enantiomers' stability up to 48 h at room temperature and 24 h at 37 °C. Racemization was only affected by higher temperatures. The potential enantioselectivity of MDPV in cytotoxicity and in the expression of neuroplasticity-involved proteins-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5)-was also evaluated using SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. No enantioselectivity was observed.
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2
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The Old and the New: Cardiovascular and Respiratory Alterations Induced by Acute JWH-018 Administration Compared to Δ 9-THC-A Preclinical Study in Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021631. [PMID: 36675144 PMCID: PMC9865969 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Several new psychoactive substances (NPS) are responsible for intoxication involving the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Among NPS, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) provoked side effects in humans characterized by tachycardia, arrhythmias, hypertension, breathing difficulty, apnoea, myocardial infarction, and cardiac arrest. Therefore, the present study investigated the cardio-respiratory (MouseOx Plus; EMKA electrocardiogram (ECG) and plethysmography TUNNEL systems) and vascular (BP-2000 systems) effects induced by 1-naphthalenyl (1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone (JWH-018; 0.3-3-6 mg/kg) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC; 0.3-3-6 mg/kg), administered in awake CD-1 male mice. The results showed that higher doses of JWH-018 (3-6 mg/kg) induced deep and long-lasting bradycardia, alternated with bradyarrhythmia, spaced out by sudden episodes of tachyarrhythmias (6 mg/kg), and characterized by ECG electrical parameters changes, sustained bradypnea, and systolic and transient diastolic hypertension. Otherwise, Δ9-THC provoked delayed bradycardia (minor intensity tachyarrhythmias episodes) and bradypnea, also causing a transient and mild hypertensive effect at the tested dose range. These effects were prevented by both treatment with selective CB1 (AM 251, 6 mg/kg) and CB2 (AM 630, 6 mg/kg) receptor antagonists and with the mixture of the antagonists AM 251 and AM 630, even if in a different manner. Cardio-respiratory and vascular symptoms could be induced by peripheral and central CB1 and CB2 receptors stimulation, which could lead to both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems activation. These findings may represent a starting point for necessary future studies aimed at exploring the proper antidotal therapy to be used in SCs-intoxicated patient management.
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3
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Contribution of Illicit Drug Use to Pharmaceutical Load in the Environment: A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2022:9056476. [PMID: 35719855 PMCID: PMC9200571 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9056476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Illicit drug abuse and addiction are universal issues requiring international cooperation and interdisciplinary and multisectoral solutions. These addictive substances are utilized for recreational purposes worldwide, including in sub-Saharan Africa. On the other hand, conventional wastewater treatment facilities such as waste stabilization ponds lack the design to remove the most recent classes of pollutants such as illicit drug abuse. As a result, effluents from these treatment schemes contaminate the entire ecosystem. Public health officials are concerned about detecting these pollutants at alarming levels in some countries, with potential undesirable effects on aquatic species and increased health hazards through exposure to contaminated waters or recycling treated or untreated effluents in agriculture. Contaminants including illicit substances enter the environment by human excreta following illegal intake, spills, or through direct dumping, such as from clandestine laboratories, when their manufacturer does not follow accepted production processes. These substances, like other pharmaceuticals, have biological activity and range from pseudopersistent to highly persistent compounds; hence, they persist in the environment while causing harm to the ecosystem. The presence of powerful pharmacological agents such as cocaine, morphine, and amphetamine in water as complex combinations can impair aquatic organisms and human health. These compounds can harm human beings and ecosystem health apart from their low environmental levels. Therefore, this article examines the presence and levels of illicit substances in ecological compartments such as wastewater, surface and ground waters in sub-Saharan Africa, and their latent impact on the ecosystem. The information on the occurrences of illicit drugs and their metabolic products in the sub-Saharan Africa environment and their contribution to pharmaceutical load is missing. In this case, it is important to research further the presence, levels, distribution, and environmental risks of exposure to human beings and the entire ecosystem.
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Why Do Marijuana and Synthetic Cannabimimetics Induce Acute Myocardial Infarction in Healthy Young People? Cells 2022; 11:cells11071142. [PMID: 35406706 PMCID: PMC8997492 DOI: 10.3390/cells11071142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of cannabis preparations has steadily increased. Although cannabis was traditionally assumed to only have mild vegetative side effects, it has become evident in recent years that severe cardiovascular complications can occur. Cannabis use has recently even been added to the risk factors for myocardial infarction. This review is dedicated to pathogenetic factors contributing to cannabis-related myocardial infarction. Tachycardia is highly important in this respect, and we provide evidence that activation of CB1 receptors in brain regions important for cardiovascular regulation and of presynaptic CB1 receptors on sympathetic and/or parasympathetic nerve fibers are involved. The prototypical factors for myocardial infarction, i.e., thrombus formation and coronary constriction, have also been considered, but there is little evidence that they play a decisive role. On the other hand, an increase in the formation of carboxyhemoglobin, impaired mitochondrial respiration, cardiotoxic reactions and tachyarrhythmias associated with the increased sympathetic tone are factors possibly intensifying myocardial infarction. A particularly important factor is that cannabis use is frequently accompanied by tobacco smoking. In conclusion, additional research is warranted to decipher the mechanisms involved, since cannabis use is being legalized increasingly and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its synthetic analogue nabilone are indicated for the treatment of various disease states.
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5
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Synthetic Cathinones: Recent Developments, Enantioselectivity Studies and Enantioseparation Methods. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27072057. [PMID: 35408456 PMCID: PMC9000803 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27072057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances represent a public health threat since they are not controlled by international conventions, are easily accessible online and are sold as a legal alternative to illicit drugs. Among them, synthetic cathinones are widely abused due to their stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. To circumvent the law, new derivatives are clandestinely synthesized and, therefore, synthetic cathinones keep emerging on the drug market, with their chemical and toxicological properties still unknown. In this review, a literature assessment about synthetic cathinones is presented focusing on the recent developments, which include more than 50 derivatives since 2014. A summary of their toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic properties are also presented. Furthermore, synthetic cathinones are chiral compounds, meaning that they can exist as two enantiomeric forms which may present different biological and toxicological activities. To analyze the enantiomers, the development of enantiomeric resolution methods for synthetic cathinones is crucial. Many methods have been reported over the years that include mostly chromatographic and electromigration techniques, with liquid chromatography using chiral stationary phases being the technique of choice. This review intended to present an overview of enantioselectivity studies and enantioseparation analysis regarding synthetic cathinones, highlighting the relevance of chirality and current trends.
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Enantioselectivity of Pentedrone and Methylone on Metabolic Profiling in 2D and 3D Human Hepatocyte-like Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030368. [PMID: 35337165 PMCID: PMC8953427 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentedrone and methylone can express stereoselectivity in toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic processes. Similarly, their chiral discrimination in metabolism, which was not yet evaluated, can result in different metabolic profiles and subsequent hepatotoxic effects. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess, for the first time, both the hepatic cytotoxic and metabolic profile of pentedrone and methylone enantiomers using physiologically relevant in vitro models. The hepatotoxicity of these compounds was observed in a concentration-dependent manner in human stem-cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) cultured under 3D (3D-HLCs) and 2D (2D-HLCs) conditions. Enantioselectivity, on the other hand, was only shown for pentedrone (1 mM) in 3D-HLCs, being R-(−)-pentedrone the most cytotoxic. Furthermore, the metabolic profile was initially evaluated in human liver microsomes (HLM) and further demonstrated in 3D-HLCs and 2D-HLCs applying a gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) technique. Methylone and pentedrone showed distinct and preferential metabolic routes for their enantiomers, resulting in the production of differentiated metabolites; R-(+)-methylone and R-(−)-pentedrone are the most metabolized enantiomers. In conclusion, the results demonstrated enantioselectivity for pentedrone and methylone in the metabolic processes, with enantioselectivity in cytotoxicity for pentedrone.
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Romańczuk A, Rojek S, Kula K, Maciów-Głąb M, Synowiec K, Moskała A, Rzepecka-Woźniak E, Kłys M. Post-aggression suicide under the influence of new psychoactive substances AMB–FUBINACA and U-47700. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2022; 56:102053. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2022.102053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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S-(+)-Pentedrone and R-(+)-methylone as the most oxidative and cytotoxic enantiomers to dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells: Role of MRP1 and P-gp in cathinones enantioselectivity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2021; 416:115442. [PMID: 33609514 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cathinone derivatives are the most representative group within new drugs market, which have been described as neurotoxic. Since cathinones, as pentedrone and methylone, are available as racemates, it is our aim to study the neuronal cytotoxicity induced by each enantiomer. Therefore, a dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cell line was used to evaluate the hypothesis of enantioselectivity of pentedrone and methylone enantiomers on cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and membrane efflux transport (confirmed by in silico studies). Our study demonstrated enantioselectivity of these cathinones, being the S-(+)-pentedrone and R-(+)-methylone the most oxidative enantiomers and also the most cytotoxic, suggesting the oxidative stress as main cytotoxic mechanism, as previously described in in vitro studies. Additionally, the efflux transporter multidrug resistance associated protein 1 (MRP1) seems to play, together with GSH, a selective protective role against the cytotoxicity induced by R-(-)-pentedrone enantiomer. It was also observed an enantioselectivity in the binding to P-glycoprotein (P-gp), another efflux protein, being the R-(-)-pentedrone and S-(-)-methylone the most transported enantiomeric compounds. These results were confirmed, in silico, by docking studies, revealing that R-(-)-pentedrone is the enantiomer with highest affinity to MRP1 and S-(-)-methylone and R-(-)-pentedrone are the enantiomers with highest affinity to P-gp. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that pentedrone and methylone present enantioselectivity in their cytotoxicity, which seems to involve different oxidative reactivity as well as different affinity to the P-gp and MRP1 that together with GSH play a protective role.
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9
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von Cüpper M, Dalsgaard PW, Linnet K. Identification of New Psychoactive Substances in Seized material Using UHPLC-QTOF-MS and An Online Mass Spectral Database. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 44:1047-1051. [PMID: 32232329 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The unpredictable pharmacological and toxicological effects associated with the recreational use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) represent a threat to the public health. Analysts are constantly facing a challenge to identify these designer drugs. In this article, five seized samples were submitted for analysis using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS). To tentatively identify the NPS in the samples, the potential usage of an online mass spectral database (HighResNPS.com) was explored by searching the exact mass of the precursor ion and evaluating the fragmentation profile. This approach successfully identified a suspected candidate compound present in three of the five samples. However, conclusive identification of the remaining two was not possible, due to indistinguishable fragmentation profiles of positional isomers. Therefore, complementary analytical methodologies are of paramount importance. In light of the above, HighResNPS.com is a useful tool in presumptively identifying an NPS without a reference standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria von Cüpper
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Petur Weihe Dalsgaard
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
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10
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Savulich G, Bowden-Jones O, Stephenson R, Brühl AB, Ersche KD, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. "Hot" and "Cold" Cognition in Users of Club Drugs/Novel Psychoactive Substances. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:660575. [PMID: 33841219 PMCID: PMC8024487 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.660575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are popular "club/party" drugs that first attracted attention in the UK in 2009 and remained legal until the 2016 Psychoactive Substances Act criminalized their distribution. Unlike "traditional" illicit drugs, very little is known about the influence of their analogs on neuropsychological functioning. We characterized the cognitive and emotional profile of NPS/polydrug users using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) and EMOTICOM test battery in adult male (aged 20-49 years) recreational users without psychiatric comorbidities (n = 27; "psychonauts"), service users attending a UK specialist "Club Drug" Clinic for problematic use (n = 20) and healthy control volunteers without significant drug-taking histories (n = 35). Tasks were selected to distinguish "hot" cognitive processes that are highly influenced by emotion from "cold" cognitive processes that are largely independent of emotional influence. Both user groups reported significantly higher sensation-seeking traits compared with non-users. Recreational NPS users demonstrated more risk-taking behavior compared with controls and treatment-seeking NPS users showed poorer learning, episodic memory and response inhibition compared with the other two groups. These effects persisted, when controlling for age, intelligence, alcohol and cannabis use severity, nicotine dependence, trait anxiety, depression, childhood adversity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking. Overall, recreational NPS users showed elevated "hot" (emotion-laden) cognition in the absence of "cold" (non-emotional) cognitive deficits, whereas "cold" cognitive dysfunction was pronounced in individuals seeking treatment for problematic NPS use. High trait impulsivity and poor self-control may confer additional risk to NPS/polydrug use severity and separate those seeking treatment from those using NPS recreationally.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Savulich
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Owen Bowden-Jones
- Club Drug Clinic, Central and North West London National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom.,University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Annette B Brühl
- University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karen D Ersche
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara J Sahakian
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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11
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Dos Santos NA, Macrino CJ, Allochio Filho JF, Gonçalves FF, Almeida CM, Agostini F, Guizolfi T, Moura S, Lacerda V, Filgueiras PR, Ortiz RS, Romão W. Exploring the chemical profile of designer drugs by ESI(+) and PSI(+) mass spectrometry-An approach on the fragmentation mechanisms and chemometric analysis. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2020; 55:e4596. [PMID: 32729201 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of design drugs, frequently known as new psychoactive substances (NPS), has increased considerably worldwide, becoming a severe issue for the responsible governmental agencies. These illicit substances can be defined as synthetic compounds produced in clandestine laboratories in order to act as analogs of schedule drugs mimetizing its chemical structure and improving its pharmacological effects while hampering the control and making regulation more complicated. In this way, the development of new methodologies for chemical analysis of NPS drugs is indispensable to determine a novel class of drugs arising from the underground market. Therefore, this work shows the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) applying different ionization sources such as paper spray ionization (PSI) and electrospray ionization (ESI) in the evaluation of miscellaneous of seized drugs samples as blotter paper (n = 79) and tablet (n = 100). Also, an elucidative analysis was performed by ESI(+)MS/MS experiments, and fragmentation mechanisms were proposed to confirm the chemical structure of compounds identified. Besides, the results of ESI(+) and PSI(+)-FT-ICR MS were compared with those of GC-MS, revealing that ESI(+)MS showed greater detection efficiency among the methodologies employed in this study. Moreover, this study stands out as a guide for the chemical analysis of NPS drugs, highlighting the differences between the techniques of ESI(+)-FT-ICR MS, PSI(+)-FT-ICR MS, and GC-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nayara A Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
| | - Clebson J Macrino
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
| | - João Francisco Allochio Filho
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo (IFES), Rodovia BR-101 Norte, Km 58, Litorâneo, São Mateus, Espírito Santo, 29932-540, Brazil
| | - Fernanda F Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
| | - Camila M Almeida
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Agostini
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia de Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos, Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, 95020260, Brazil
| | - Tainara Guizolfi
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia de Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos, Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, 95020260, Brazil
| | - Sidnei Moura
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia de Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos, Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, 95020260, Brazil
| | - Valdemar Lacerda
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
| | - Paulo R Filgueiras
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
| | - Rafael S Ortiz
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Superintendência da Polícia Federal no Rio Grande Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Wanderson Romão
- Laboratório de Petroleômica e Forense, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Vitória, ES, CEP: 29075-910, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Forense (INCT Forense), Vitoria, Brazil
- Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo (IFES), Av. Ministro Salgado Filho, Soteco, Vila Velha, Espírito Santo, 29106-010, Brazil
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12
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Benschop A, Urbán R, Kapitány-Fövény M, Van Hout MC, Dąbrowska K, Felvinczi K, Hearne E, Henriques S, Kaló Z, Kamphausen G, Silva JP, Wieczorek Ł, Werse B, Bujalski M, Korf D, Demetrovics Z. Why do people use new psychoactive substances? Development of a new measurement tool in six European countries. J Psychopharmacol 2020; 34:600-611. [PMID: 32043399 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120904951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION New psychoactive substances (NPS) pose a public health threat. Many studies have tried to identify the reasons of NPS use; however, none of them have so far used any standardised measures. The aim of this study was (i) to develop and cross-culturally validate the New Psychoactive Substance Use Motives Measure (NPSMM) and (ii) to compare motives of NPS use across countries and user types. METHODS Three subgroups (socially marginalised users, nightlife attendees and members of online communities) of NPS users (N = 3023) were recruited from six EU member countries. Demographics, motives and types of NPS used were assessed. NPS use motives were measured by adapting the extended six-factor version of the Marijuana Motives Measure. RESULTS Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis resulted in a similar five-factor solution across most of the countries: coping, enhancement, social, conformity and expansion motives. Marginalised users scored higher on coping and conformity motives, nightlife groups showed higher endorsement of social motive, whereas online community users showed higher scores on expansion motives. Various types of NPS were also associated with different motives. CONCLUSION NPS use motives might be associated with both the groups of users and the specific types of NPS being consumed. Expansion (psychedelics) and enhancement (stimulants) motives seemed to be linked to the chosen NPS product type, while coping, social and conformity motives were rather associated with user groups. NPSMM was found to be a valid instrument to measure NPS motives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Róbert Urbán
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Máté Kapitány-Fövény
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.,Nyírő Gyula National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | - Katalin Felvinczi
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Evelyn Hearne
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Susana Henriques
- Centre for Research and Studies in Sociology, ISCTE Lisbon University Institute, Lisbon, Portugal.,Universidade Aberta de Portugal, Aberta, Portugal
| | - Zsuzsa Kaló
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Dirk Korf
- Bonger Institute, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Zsolt Demetrovics
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
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13
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Hanke K, Fiedler S, Grumann C, Ratmann O, Hauser A, Klink P, Meixenberger K, Altmann B, Zimmermann R, Marcus U, Bremer V, Auwärter V, Bannert N. A Recent Human Immunodeficiency Virus Outbreak Among People Who Inject Drugs in Munich, Germany, Is Associated With Consumption of Synthetic Cathinones. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7:ofaa192. [PMID: 32617370 PMCID: PMC7314588 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Needle and syringe sharing among people who inject drugs (PWID) can result in a rapid regional spread of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) variant. Such outbreaks have been identified recently in several countries and have raised public health attention because of an association with new psychoactive substances (NPS). Methods Dried serum spots from approximately 60% of newly diagnosed HIV cases in Germany in 2013–2018 were received together with statutory notification data. Samples were sequenced in the pol-region, genotyped, and viral phylogenies were analyzed. For selected samples, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) status and the presence of NPS were determined. Results An outbreak of closely related 27 subtype C infections with a core of 11 cases with almost identical sequences was identified using phylogenetic analyses. The first case of the outbreak was diagnosed in 2015, and the last one was in 2018. With exception of 3 infections, all were reported from Munich, the capital of the federal state of Bavaria. Of 26 analyzed outbreak members, 24 (92.3%) had a resolved or viremic HCV coinfection. In 8 of 18 (44%) cases, α-pyrrolidinopentiothiophenone and/or the related substance α-pyrrolidinoheptiophenone was identified. Conclusions Despite harm reduction services in place, HIV outbreaks of considerable size can occur in PWID. The establishment of a real-time molecular surveillance is advised to rapidly identify outbreaks and target prevention measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Hanke
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Fiedler
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Grumann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Ratmann
- Department of Mathematics, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Hauser
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Patrycja Klink
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Britta Altmann
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ruth Zimmermann
- Division of HIV/AIDS, STI, and Blood-borne Infections, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulrich Marcus
- Division of HIV/AIDS, STI, and Blood-borne Infections, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Viviane Bremer
- Division of HIV/AIDS, STI, and Blood-borne Infections, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Norbert Bannert
- Division of HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Institute of Virology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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14
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Deligianni E, Daniel OJ, Corkery JM, Schifano F, Lione LA. Impact of the UK Psychoactive Substances Act on awareness, use, experiences and knowledge of potential associated health risks of novel psychoactive substances. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:505-516. [PMID: 31495968 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The risk of potential harms prompted the UK government to introduce the Psychoactive Substances Act in 2016. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact and effectiveness of this new legislation on patterns of novel psychoactive substance (NPS) awareness, use, experiences and risk awareness in a self-selected sample of UK consumers to inform education and policy. METHODS The Bristol Online Survey was advertised on the Bluelight drug forum and social media Facebook pages and University email between 7 January and 7 February 2015 (168 responses) and 9 March to 18 September 2017 (726 responses). UK country of residence responses were extracted for analysis (SPSS). RESULTS In a predominantly university-educated, young (< 25 years) self-selecting sample, 1 year after introduction of the legislation, NPS use (in males, under 18s, those educated to school/college level, P < .001) has increased, whilst health risk awareness has not changed and remains poor. Users are switching to sourcing NPSs via street dealers (49%) and the darknet (31%) and showing an increase in preference for the herbal NPS Salvia divinorum (P < .05). The main reasons for NPS use remain the influence of friends (69%) in a social setting and to get high (76%) usually in combination with alcohol, cannabis or ecstasy. CONCLUSION Regulation alone, so far, has not impacted on health risk awareness, NPS drug demand and culture in our UK survey sample. Alongside regulation, NPS health promotion education (particularly in schools, colleges) is needed that addresses resilience and both the risks and beneficial effects of NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Deligianni
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Omari J Daniel
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - John M Corkery
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Lisa A Lione
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Clinical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
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Prevalence and factors associated with continual opioid use among patients attending methadone clinic at Mwananyamala Hospital, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL: REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fsir.2019.100037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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16
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Diamanti K, Aalizadeh R, Alygizakis N, Galani A, Mardal M, Thomaidis NS. Wide-scope target and suspect screening methodologies to investigate the occurrence of new psychoactive substances in influent wastewater from Athens. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 685:1058-1065. [PMID: 31390696 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Almost all licit and illicit drugs consumed by the society end up either unchanged or as a mixture of metabolites in the sewage systems. The analysis of influent wastewater samples and the estimation of drug consumption is the field of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). A new trend of WBE is the estimation of the consumption of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), which are legal replacements of established narcotic and psychotropic drugs with slightly modified chemical structures and similar or new effects. To investigate the occurrence of NPS, 30 composite daily influent wastewater samples from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Athens (Greece) were collected in a four-year sampling campaign (2015-2018). A generic four-sorbent solid-phase extraction (SPE) sample preparation protocol able to retain compounds with wide physicochemical properties was used. Extracts were analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) using target screening for 278 NPS and suspect screening for 451 NPS. Target screening method was validated for a subset of 49 representative NPS and illicit drugs with similar structures with the NPS. 24 NPS and related compounds were detected by target screening and two compounds were tentatively identified based on mass accuracy, prediction of retention time using in-house QSRR prediction models, isotopic pattern and HRMS/MS fragmentation, whereas the excreted mass loads were also calculated. The results indicated an occasional and low occurrence of NPS in wastewater during the week and over the years, whereas the estimation of the exact sources and the evaluation of the patterns in wastewater were critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Diamanti
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Reza Aalizadeh
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikiforos Alygizakis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Aikaterini Galani
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Marie Mardal
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, , Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Nikolaos S Thomaidis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece.
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Šuláková A, Fojtíková L, Holubová B, Bártová K, Lapčík O, Kuchař M. Two immunoassays for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2018; 95:36-46. [PMID: 30481558 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The use of new psychoactive substances as drugs of abuse has dramatically increased over the last years. Hallucinogenic phenethylamines gained particular popularity as they have both stimulating and psychedelic effects. Although generally perceived as safe, these illicit drugs pose a serious health risk; they have been linked to cases of severe poisoning or even deaths. Therefore, simple, cost-effective and reliable methods are needed for rapid determination of abused hallucinogens. METHODS For this purpose, two haptens derived from 2C-H were designed, synthesized and subsequently attached to a carrier protein. Polyclonal antibodies obtained from a rabbit immunized with one of the prepared immunogens were used for the development of two immunoassays. RESULTS In this study, a lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) and an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines in urine were developed. The presented LFIA is primarily suitable for on-site monitoring as it is simple and can provide a visual evidence of 2C-B presence within a few minutes. Its reasonable sensitivity (LODLFIA = 15 ± 7 ng mL-1) allows detection of the drug presence in urine after acute exposure. For greater accuracy, highly sensitive ELISA (LODELISA = 6 ± 3 pg mL-1) is proposed for toxicological quantitative analyses of positive samples captured by the LFIA. DISCUSSION The comparison of the ELISA with the well-established UHPLC-MS-MS method shows excellent agreement of results, which confirms good potential of the ELISA to be used for routine analyses of 2C-B and related hallucinogenic phenethylamines of both main sub-families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Šuláková
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, 250 67 Klecany, Czechia.
| | - Lucie Fojtíková
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Barbora Holubová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Kateřina Bártová
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia
| | - Oldřich Lapčík
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia.
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 3, 166 28 Praha 6, Dejvice, Czechia; Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, 250 67 Klecany, Czechia.
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McCutcheon D, Raghavan M, Soderstrom J, Oosthuizen F, Douglas B, MacDonald E, Fatovich D. An early warning system for emerging drugs of concern in the emergency department: Protocol for the Western Australian Illicit Substance Evaluation (WISE) study. Emerg Med Australas 2018; 31:411-416. [DOI: 10.1111/1742-6723.13185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David McCutcheon
- Centre for Clinical Research in Emergency MedicineHarry Perkins Institute of Medical Research Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency MedicineThe University of Western Australia Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency DepartmentRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
| | - Mohan Raghavan
- Emergency DepartmentRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
- Clinical ToxicologyRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
| | - Jessamine Soderstrom
- Centre for Clinical Research in Emergency MedicineHarry Perkins Institute of Medical Research Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency DepartmentRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
- Clinical ToxicologyRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
| | | | | | - Ellen MacDonald
- Centre for Clinical Research in Emergency MedicineHarry Perkins Institute of Medical Research Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency MedicineThe University of Western Australia Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency DepartmentRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
| | - Daniel Fatovich
- Centre for Clinical Research in Emergency MedicineHarry Perkins Institute of Medical Research Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency MedicineThe University of Western Australia Perth Western Australia Australia
- Emergency DepartmentRoyal Perth Hospital Perth Western Australia Australia
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19
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Phenotypic effects of chronic and acute use of methiopropamine in a mouse model. Int J Legal Med 2018; 133:811-820. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-018-1891-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Katselou M, Papoutsis I, Nikolaou P, Misailidi N, Spiliopoulou C, Athanaselis S. Diphenidine: a dissociative NPS makes an entrance on the drug scene. Forensic Toxicol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-018-0421-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Soussan C, Andersson M, Kjellgren A. The diverse reasons for using Novel Psychoactive Substances - A qualitative study of the users' own perspectives. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2017; 52:71-78. [PMID: 29241144 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increasing number of legally ambiguous and precarious Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) constitutes a challenge for policy makers and public health. Scientific and more in-depth knowledge about the motivations for using NPS is scarce and often consist of predetermined, non-systematic, or poorly described reasons deduced from top-down approaches. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore and characterize the users' self-reported reasons for NPS use inductively and more comprehensively. METHODS The self-reported reasons of a self-selected sample of 613 international NPS users were collected via an online survey promoted at the international drug discussion forum bluelight.org and later analyzed qualitatively using inductive thematic analysis. RESULTS The analysis showed that the participants used NPS because these compounds reportedly: 1) enabled safer and more convenient drug use, 2) satisfied a curiosity and interest about the effects, 3) facilitated a novel and exciting adventure, 4) promoted self-exploration and personal growth, 5) functioned as coping agents, 6) enhanced abilities and performance, 7) fostered social bonding and belonging, and 8) acted as a means for recreation and pleasure. The consumption of NPS was also driven by 9) problematic and unintentional use. CONCLUSION The present study contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of the users' own and self-reported reasons for using NPS, which needs to be acknowledged not only in order to minimize drug related harm and drug user alienation but also to improve prevention efforts and reduce the potentially counter-intuitive effects of strictly prohibitive policies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Andersson
- Dept. of Psychology, Karlstad University, SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden.
| | - Anette Kjellgren
- Dept. of Psychology, Karlstad University, SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden.
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22
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Piacentino D, Kotzalidis GD, Longo L, Pavan A, Stivali L, Stivali G, Ferracuti S, Brugnoli R, Frati P, Fineschi V, Girardi P, Sani G. Body Image and Eating Disorders are Common among Professional and Amateur Athletes Using Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:373-384. [PMID: 28777732 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1359708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The use of performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) is not uncommon in athletes and appears to be associated with several psychopathological disorders of unclear prevalence. In this multicenter, cross-sectional study, we aimed to evaluate the prevalence of body image disorders (BIDs) and eating disorders (EDs) in PIED-using athletes vs. PIED nonusers. We enrolled 84 consecutive professional and amateur athletes training in sport centers in Italy, who underwent semi-structured interviews (SCID-I, SCID-II) and completed the Body Image Concern Inventory (BICI) and the Sick, Control, One, Fat, Food Eating Disorder Screening Test (SCOFF). PIEDs were searched for in participants' blood, urine, and hair. Of these, 18 (21.4%) used PIEDs, the most common being anabolic androgenic steroids, amphetamine-like substances, coffee and caffeine derivatives, synthetic cathinones, and ephedrine. PIED users and nonusers did not differ in socio-demographic characteristics, but differed in clinical and psychopathological features, with PIED users being characterized by higher physical activity levels, higher daily coffee and psychotropic medication use (e.g., benzodiazepines), more SCID diagnoses of psychiatric disorders, especially substance use disorder, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), EDs, and general anxiety disorder, higher BICI scores (indicating higher risk of BDD), and higher SCOFF scores (suggesting higher risks for BIDs and EDs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Piacentino
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy.,b Resident, Department of Psychiatry , San Maurizio Hospital, Sanitary Agency of South Tyrol , Bolzano-Bozen , Italy
| | - Georgios D Kotzalidis
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Livia Longo
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Antonio Pavan
- c Professor, Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Immunohematology and Transfusion Medicine Service , Sant'Andrea Hospital, Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | | | - Guido Stivali
- e Colonel, Aerospace Medicine Institute of the Italian Armed Forces , Milan , Italy
| | - Stefano Ferracuti
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Roberto Brugnoli
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Paola Frati
- f Professor, Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Vittorio Fineschi
- f Professor, Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Paolo Girardi
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Gabriele Sani
- a Professor, NESMOS (Neuroscience, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs) Department , Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome , Italy
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Mdege ND, Meader N, Lloyd C, Parrott S, McCambridge J. The Novel Psychoactive Substances in the UK Project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations. PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.3310/phr05040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundAlthough illegal drug use has largely been declining in the UK over the past decade, this period has witnessed the emergence of a range of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) (‘legal highs’). These are new, mostly synthetic, substances that mimic the effects of existing drugs). Despite there being many causes for concern in relation to NPS, there has been little prior study of the burden associated with their use in public health terms. Clarity is lacking on research priorities in this rapidly developing literature.ObjectivesTo inform the development of public health intervention research on NPS by reviewing existing data on their use, associated problems and potential responses to such problems.DesignA scoping review and narrative synthesis of selected bodies of evidence was undertaken to summarise and evaluate what is known about NPS use and the related harms of, and responses to, such use. Relevant literature was identified from electronic databases (covering January 2006 to June 2016 inclusive), Google (Google Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA), relevant websites and online drug forums and by contacting experts. Articles were included if they were primary studies, secondary studies involving the analysis and interpretation of primary research or discussion papers. A conceptual framework postulating an evidence-informed public health approach to NPS use in the UK was developed through a pragmatic literature review, the iterative development of concepts and finalisation in light of the results from the empirical review work. The process also involved feedback from various stakeholders. Research recommendations were developed from both strands of work.ResultsA total of 995 articles were included in the scoping review, the majority of which related to individual-level health-related adverse effects attributable to NPS use. The prevalence of lifetime NPS use varied widely between (e.g. with higher prevalence in young males) and within population subgroups. The most commonly reported adverse effects were psychiatric/other neurological, cardiovascular, renal and gastrointestinal manifestations, and there is limited evidence available on responses. In these and other respects, available evidence is at an early stage of development. Initial evidence challenges the view that NPS should be treated differently from other illicit drugs. The conceptual framework indicated that much of the evidence that would be useful to inform public health responses does not yet exist. We propose a systems-based prevention approach that develops existing responses, is multilevel and life course informed in character, and emphasises commonalities between NPS and other legal and illegal drug use. We make 20 recommendations for research, including nine key recommendations.LimitationsScoping reviews do not interrogate evidence in depth, and the disjunction between the scoping review and the conceptual framework findings is worthy of careful attention.ConclusionsKey research recommendations build on those that have previously been made and offer more evidence-based justification and detail, as previous recommendations have not yet been acted on. The case for decision-making on commissioning new research based on these recommendations is both strong and urgent.Future workThe validity of recommendations generated through this project could be enhanced via further work with research commissioners, policy-makers, researchers and the public.Study registrationThe systematic review element of this study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42016026415.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreen D Mdege
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Nick Meader
- Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York, York, UK
| | - Charlie Lloyd
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Steve Parrott
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
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Fabregat-Safont D, Fornís I, Ventura M, Gil C, Calzada N, Sancho J, Hernández F, Ibáñez M. Identification and characterization of a putative new psychoactive substance, 2-(2-(4-chlorophenyl)acetamido)-3-methylbutanamide, in Spain. Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:1073-1080. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Fabregat-Safont
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water; University Jaume I; Avda Sos Baynat s/n 12071 Castellón Spain
| | - I. Fornís
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo); c/ Independencia 384 08041 Barcelona Spain
| | - M. Ventura
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo); c/ Independencia 384 08041 Barcelona Spain
| | - C. Gil
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo); c/ Independencia 384 08041 Barcelona Spain
| | - N. Calzada
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo); c/ Independencia 384 08041 Barcelona Spain
| | - J.V. Sancho
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water; University Jaume I; Avda Sos Baynat s/n 12071 Castellón Spain
| | - F. Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water; University Jaume I; Avda Sos Baynat s/n 12071 Castellón Spain
| | - M. Ibáñez
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water; University Jaume I; Avda Sos Baynat s/n 12071 Castellón Spain
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26
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Weiß JA, Kadkhodaei K, Schmid MG. Indirect chiral separation of 8 novel amphetamine derivatives as potential new psychoactive compounds by GC–MS and HPLC. Sci Justice 2017; 57:6-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2016.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Weinstein AM, Rosca P, Fattore L, London ED. Synthetic Cathinone and Cannabinoid Designer Drugs Pose a Major Risk for Public Health. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:156. [PMID: 28878698 PMCID: PMC5572353 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of an increasing worldwide use of designer drugs, recent use of compounds containing cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids is especially prevalent. Here, we reviewed current literature on the prevalence, epidemiology, bio-behavioral effects, and detection of these compounds. Gender differences and clinical effects will also be examined. Chronic use of synthetic cathinone compounds can have major effects on the central nervous system and can induce acute psychosis, hypomania, paranoid ideation, and delusions, similar to the effects of other better-known amphetamine-type stimulants. Synthetic cannabinoid products have effects that are somewhat similar to those of natural cannabis but more potent and long-lasting than THC. Some of these compounds are potent and dangerous, having been linked to psychosis, mania, and suicidal ideation. Novel compounds are developed rapidly and new screening techniques are needed to detect them as well as a rigorous regulation and legislation reinforcement to prevent their distribution and use. Given the rapid increase in the use of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoid designer drugs, their potential for dependence and abuse, and harmful medical and psychiatric effects, there is a need for research and education in the areas of prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aviv M Weinstein
- Department of Behavioral Science, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Paola Rosca
- Department for the Treatment of Substance Abuse, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council of Italy, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Edythe D London
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Brain Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Watterson LR, Olive MF. Reinforcing Effects of Cathinone NPS in the Intravenous Drug Self-Administration Paradigm. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:133-143. [PMID: 27431398 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Since the mid- to late 2000s, there has been a dramatic rise in the use and abuse of synthetic derivatives of cathinone, a stimulant alkaloid found in the African shrub Catha edulis. Cathinone novel psychoactive substances (NPS), also referred to as synthetic cathinones or "bath salt"-type drugs, have gained popularity among drug users due to their potency, low cost, ease of procurement, and diverse array of evolving chemical structures. While the ability of cathinone NPS to produce psychotomimetic effects, multiple organ system toxicity, and death in humans is well documented, there has been limited scientific investigation into the reinforcing effects and abuse liability of these drugs. In this chapter, we will summarize the existing literature on the reinforcing effects of cathinone NPS in rodents using the intravenous self-administration (IVSA) paradigm. We will also compare the ability of cathinone NPS to serve as reinforcers to that of classical psychostimulants such as cocaine, methamphetamine, and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). The chapter will conclude with a summary and indications for future avenues of research on cathinone NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas R Watterson
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 871104, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA
| | - M Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 871104, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA.
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Poisonous or non-poisonous plants? DNA-based tools and applications for accurate identification. Int J Legal Med 2016; 131:1-19. [PMID: 27796590 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-016-1460-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Plant exposures are among the most frequently reported cases to poison control centres worldwide. This is a growing condition due to recent societal trends oriented towards the consumption of wild plants as food, cosmetics, or medicine. At least three general causes of plant poisoning can be identified: plant misidentification, introduction of new plant-based supplements and medicines with no controls about their safety, and the lack of regulation for the trading of herbal and phytochemical products. Moreover, an efficient screening for the occurrence of plants poisonous to humans is also desirable at the different stages of the food supply chain: from the raw material to the final transformed product. A rapid diagnosis of intoxication cases is necessary in order to provide the most reliable treatment. However, a precise taxonomic characterization of the ingested species is often challenging. In this review, we provide an overview of the emerging DNA-based tools and technologies to address the issue of poisonous plant identification. Specifically, classic DNA barcoding and its applications using High Resolution Melting (Bar-HRM) ensure high universality and rapid response respectively, whereas High Throughput Sequencing techniques (HTS) provide a complete characterization of plant residues in complex matrices. The pros and cons of each approach have been evaluated with the final aim of proposing a general user's guide to molecular identification directed to different stakeholder categories interested in the diagnostics of poisonous plants.
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New psychoactive substances: an overview on recent publications on their toxicodynamics and toxicokinetics. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:2421-44. [PMID: 27665567 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1812-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This review article covers English-written and PubMed-listed review articles and original studies published between January 2015 and April 2016 dealing with the toxicodynamics and toxicokinetics of new psychoactive substances. Compounds covered include stimulants and entactogens, synthetic cannabinoids, tryptamines, NBOMes, phencyclidine-like drugs, benzodiazepines, and opioids. First, an overview and discussion is provided on timely review articles followed by an overview and discussion on recent original studies. Both sections are then concluded by an opinion on these latest developments. This review shows that the NPS market is still highly dynamic and that the data published on their toxicodynamics and toxicokinetics can hardly keep pace with the appearance of new entities. However, data available are very helpful to understand and predict how NPS may behave in severe intoxication. The currently best-documented parameter is the in vitro metabolism of NPS, a prerequisite to allow detection of NPS in biological matrices in cases of acute intoxications or chronic consumption. However, additional data such as their chronic toxicity are still lacking.
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Wojcieszak J, Andrzejczak D, Woldan-Tambor A, Zawilska JB. Cytotoxic Activity of Pyrovalerone Derivatives, an Emerging Group of Psychostimulant Designer Cathinones. Neurotox Res 2016; 30:239-50. [PMID: 27295059 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-016-9640-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The growing popularity of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) has aroused the concerns of public health specialists. The pyrovalerone derivatives are a branch of synthetic cathinones, a very popular group of psychostimulant NPS. Despite numerous case reports of fatal intoxications, little is known about the cytotoxicity of these substances. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the toxic properties of pyrovalerone, its highly prevalent derivative 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (3,4-MDPV) with its two major metabolites (catechol-MDPV and methylcatechol-MDPV) and the structural isomer 2,3-MDPV, together with newer members of the group, i.e., α-pyrrolidinovalerothiophenone (α-PVT) and α-pyrrolidinooctanophenone (PV9), using model human cell lines for neurons (SH-SY5Y), hepatocytes (Hep G2), and upper airway epithelium (RPMI 2650). We found that the first generation pyrovalerones (pyrovalerone, 3,4-MDPV, and 2,3-MDPV) produced a modest decrease of mitochondrial activity in the three examined cell lines, but were active in lower concentrations than methamphetamine used as a reference psychostimulant compound. Since catechol-MDPV displayed greater toxic potential than the parent compound, we suggest that the toxicity of 3,4-MDPV could be attributed to activity of this metabolite. Strikingly, the two new generation pyrovalerones, α-PVT and PV9, seem to be the most potent cytotoxic compounds: both induced highly pronounced mitochondrial dysfunction; the latter also demonstrated significant damage to cell membranes. The reported in vitro toxic activity of pyrovalerone cathinones against different cell types reinforces existing concerns regarding the health risks associated with the intake of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Wojcieszak
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Łódź, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland
| | - Dariusz Andrzejczak
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Łódź, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland
| | - Agata Woldan-Tambor
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Łódź, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland
| | - Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Łódź, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151, Lodz, Poland.
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Chinnadurai T, Shrestha S, Ayinla R. A Curious Case of Inhalation Fever Caused by Synthetic Cannabinoid. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CASE REPORTS 2016; 17:379-83. [PMID: 27262587 PMCID: PMC4917070 DOI: 10.12659/ajcr.898500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This case report describes inhalation fever as an uncommon pulmonary adverse effect of synthetic cannabinoids. CASE REPORT A 29-year-old man was brought in for severe agitation after smoking K2, a synthetic cannabinoid. He required multiple doses of lorazepam and haloperidol for sedation. His vital signs were notable for a mild fever and tachycardia. Otherwise, the rest of his exam was unremarkable. The laboratory test was significant for leucocytosis and diffuse reticular-nodular and interstitial infiltrates on chest radiograph. Urine drug toxicology was negative. Interestingly, his symptoms and pulmonary infiltrates on the chest radiograph resolved spontaneously after 24 hours of observation. CONCLUSIONS This patient developed transient pulmonary infiltrates and fever following the synthetic cannabinoid inhalation, as seen in self-limiting inhalation fever. Inhalation fever as a consequence of synthetic cannabinoid has not been described previously and there is a need for further research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiru Chinnadurai
- Department of Medicine, Harlem Hospital Center in affiliation with Columbia University College of Physician and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - Srijan Shrestha
- Department of Medicine, Harlem Hospital Center in affiliation with Columbia University College of Physician and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - Raji Ayinla
- Department of Medicine, Harlem Hospital Center in affiliation with Columbia University College of Physician and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
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Miliano C, Serpelloni G, Rimondo C, Mereu M, Marti M, De Luca MA. Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Focus on the Rewarding and Reinforcing Properties of Cannabimimetics and Amphetamine-Like Stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:153. [PMID: 27147945 PMCID: PMC4835722 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a heterogeneous and rapidly evolving class of molecules available on the global illicit drug market (e.g smart shops, internet, “dark net”) as a substitute for controlled substances. The use of NPS, mainly consumed along with other drugs of abuse and/or alcohol, has resulted in a significantly growing number of mortality and emergency admissions for overdoses, as reported by several poison centers from all over the world. The fact that the number of NPS have more than doubled over the last 10 years, is a critical challenge to governments, the scientific community, and civil society [EMCDDA (European Drug Report), 2014; UNODC, 2014b; Trends and developments]. The chemical structure (phenethylamines, piperazines, cathinones, tryptamines, synthetic cannabinoids) of NPS and their pharmacological and clinical effects (hallucinogenic, anesthetic, dissociative, depressant) help classify them into different categories. In the recent past, 50% of newly identified NPS have been classified as synthetic cannabinoids followed by new phenethylamines (17%) (UNODC, 2014b). Besides peripheral toxicological effects, many NPS seem to have addictive properties. Behavioral, neurochemical, and electrophysiological evidence can help in detecting them. This manuscript will review existing literature about the addictive and rewarding properties of the most popular NPS classes: cannabimimetics (JWH, HU, CP series) and amphetamine-like stimulants (amphetamine, methamphetamine, methcathinone, and MDMA analogs). Moreover, the review will include recent data from our lab which links JWH-018, a CB1 and CB2 agonist more potent than Δ9-THC, to other cannabinoids with known abuse potential, and to other classes of abused drugs that increase dopamine signaling in the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) shell. Thus the neurochemical mechanisms that produce the rewarding properties of JWH-018, which most likely contributes to the greater incidence of dependence associated with “Spice” use, will be described (De Luca et al., 2015a). Considering the growing evidence of a widespread use of NPS, this review will be useful to understand the new trends in the field of drug reward and drug addiction by revealing the rewarding properties of NPS, and will be helpful to gather reliable data regarding the abuse potential of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Miliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giovanni Serpelloni
- Advisory and Steering Group, URITo.N. - Unit for Research and Innovation on Forensic Toxicology, Neuroscience of Addiction and New Drugs. FT-DSS University of Florence Florence, Italy
| | - Claudia Rimondo
- Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona Verona, Italy
| | - Maddalena Mereu
- Departmentof Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua Padua, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
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