Adhesive gland transcriptomics uncovers a diversity of genes involved in glue formation in marine tube-building polychaetes

Recent Advances in Barnacle-Inspired Biomaterials in the Field of Biomedical Research

As a marine fouling organism, barnacles secrete a cement whose proteins self-assemble into stable nanofibers, conferring exceptional underwater adhesion and curing properties. The barnacle cement proteins (BCPs) are of significant interest in biomedicine due to their adhesiveness, water resistance, stability, and biocompatibility, making them ideal for developing novel biomaterials. Additionally, BCPs have wound-healing acceleration and antibacterial properties, offering new insights for antimicrobial biomaterial development. Recently, barnacle-inspired materials have seen extensive research and notable progress in biomedicine. As the understanding of barnacle cement and its adhesion mechanisms deepens, their medical applications are expected to expand. This review summarizes the latest advancements of barnacle biomimetic materials in biomedicine, including their use in adhesives, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and hemostasis, highlighting their characteristics, applications, and potential research directions, and providing a comprehensive reference for the field.

Diversity and evolution of tyrosinase enzymes involved in the adhesive systems of mussels and tubeworms

Mussels and tubeworms have evolved similar adhesive systems to cope with the hydrodynamics of intertidal environments. Both secrete adhesive proteins rich in DOPA, a post-translationally modified amino acid playing essential roles in their permanent adhesion. DOPA is produced by the hydroxylation of tyrosine residues by tyrosinase enzymes, which can also oxidize it further into dopaquinone. We have compiled a catalog of the tyrosinases potentially involved in the adhesive systems of Mytilus edulis and Sabellaria alveolata. Some were shown to be expressed in the adhesive glands, with a high gland specificity in mussels but not in tubeworms. The diversity of tyrosinases identified in the two species suggests the coexistence of different enzymatic activities and substrate specificities. However, the exact role of the different enzymes needs to be further investigated. Phylogenetic analyses support the hypothesis of independent expansions and parallel evolution of tyrosinases involved in DOPA-based adhesion in both lineages.

Deciphering protein-mediated underwater adhesion in an invasive biofouling ascidian: Discovery, validation, and functional mechanism of an interfacial protein

Discovering macromolecules and understanding the associated mechanisms involved in underwater adhesion are essential for both studying the fundamental ecology of benthos in aquatic ecosystems and developing biomimetic adhesive materials in industries. Here, we employed quantitative proteomics to assess protein expression variations during the development of the distinct adhesive structure - stolon in the model fouling ascidian, Ciona robusta. We found 16 adhesive protein candidates with increased expression in the stolon, with ascidian adhesive protein 1 (AAP1) being particularly rich in adhesion-related signal peptides, amino acids, and functional domains. Western blot and immunolocalization analyses confirmed the prominent AAP1 signals in the mantle, tunic, stolon, and adhesive footprints, indicating the interfacial role of this protein. Surface coating and atomic force microscopy experiments verified AAP1's adhesion to diverse materials, likely through the specific electrostatic and hydrophobic amino acid interactions with various substrates. In addition, molecular docking calculations indicated the AAP1's potential for cross-linking via hydrogen bonds and salt bridges among Von Willebrand factor type A domains, enhancing its adhesion capability. Altogether, the newly discovered interfacial protein responsible for permanent underwater adhesion, along with the elucidated adhesion mechanisms, are expected to contribute to the development of biomimetic adhesive materials and anti-fouling strategies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Discovering macromolecules and studying their associated mechanisms involved in underwater adhesion are essential for understanding the fundamental ecology of benthos in aquatic ecosystems and developing innovative bionic adhesive materials in various industries. Using multidisciplinary analytical methods, we identified an interfacial protein - Ascidian Adhesive Protein 1 (AAP1) from the model marine fouling ascidian, Ciona robusta. The interfacial functions of AAP1 are achieved by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, and the Von Willebrand factor type A domain-based cross-linking likely enhances AAP1's interfacial adhesion. The identification and validation of the interfacial functions of AAP1, combined with the elucidation of adhesion mechanisms, present a promising target for the development of biomimetic adhesive materials and the formulation of effective anti-fouling strategies.

Recent advances in biomimetic hemostatic materials

Although the past decade has witnessed unprecedented medical advances, achieving rapid and effective hemostasis remains challenging. Uncontrolled bleeding and wound infections continue to plague healthcare providers, increasing the risk of death. Various types of hemostatic materials are nowadays used during clinical practice but have many limitations, including poor biocompatibility, toxicity and biodegradability. Recently, there has been a burgeoning interest in organisms that stick to objects or produce sticky substances. Indeed, applying biological adhesion properties to hemostatic materials remains an interesting approach. This paper reviews the biological behavior, bionics, and mechanisms related to hemostasis. Furthermore, this paper covers the benefits, challenges and prospects of biomimetic hemostatic materials.

Decoding the byssus fabrication by spatiotemporal secretome analysis of scallop foot

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The first secretome about scallop byssal adhesion is profiled based on a new computational strategy.

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Scallop byssal secretome covered almost all of the known structural elements and functional domains of aquatic adhesives.

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The EGF-like domain containing proteins, the Tyr-rich proteins and 4C-repeats containing proteins are the main components of scallop byssus.

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A novel “nearby secretion” model of scallop byssus secretion and adhesion is proposed.

Secretome is involved in almost all physiological, developmental, and pathological processes, but to date there is still a lack of highly-efficient research strategy to comprehensively study the secretome of invertebrates. Adhesive secretion is a ubiquitous and essential physiological process in aquatic invertebrates with complicated protein components and unresolved adhesion mechanisms, making it a good subject for secretome profiling studies. Here we proposed a computational pipeline for systematic profiling of byssal secretome based on spatiotemporal transcriptomes of scallop. A total of 186 byssus-related proteins (BRPs) were identified, which represented the first characterized secretome of scallop byssal adhesion. Scallop byssal secretome covered almost all of the known structural elements and functional domains of aquatic adhesives, which suggested this secretome-profiling strategy had both high efficiency and accuracy. We revealed the main components of scallop byssus (including EGF-like domain containing proteins, the Tyr-rich proteins and 4C-repeats containing proteins) and the related modification enzymes primarily contributing to the rapid byssus assembly and adhesion. Spatiotemporal expression and co-expression network analyses of BRPs suggested a simultaneous secretion pattern of scallop byssal proteins across the entire region of foot and revealed their diverse functions on byssus secretion. In contrast to the previously proposed “root-initiated secretion and extension-based assembly” model, our findings supported a novel “foot-wide simultaneous secretion and in situ assembly” model of scallop byssus secretion and adhesion. Systematic analysis of scallop byssal secretome provides important clues for understanding the aquatic adhesive secretion process, as well as a common framework for studying the secretome of non-model invertebrates.

Comparative proteomics for an in-depth understanding of bioadhesion mechanisms and evolution across metazoans

Bioadhesion is a critical process for many marine and freshwater invertebrate animals. Bioadhesives mainly made of proteins have remarkable adhesive ability underwater. Unraveling the molecular composition of bioadhesives is fundamental to understanding their physiological roles as well as their potential for biotechnology applications and antibiofouling strategies. With the development of high-throughput methods such as proteomics, bioadhesive protein data in diverse taxa are rapidly accumulating, but the common mechanism across species is elusive due to the vast variety of bioadhesives. In this review, bioadhesive proteins from various taxa are reviewed, with the aim of facilitating researchers to appreciate the diversity of bioadhesive proteins (mostly 20-40) across species. By comparing proteomes across species, it was found that glycine-rich, epidermal growth factor, peroxidase, and DOPA together with typical extracellular domains are the most commonly used domains. Additionally, permanent and temporary adhesion show obvious differences in terms of domains or proteins. A basic recipe for bioadhesives composed of six components is proposed: structural elements, extracellular domains, modification enzymes, proteinase inhibitors, cytoskeletal proteins, and others. The extracellular domains are mostly related to interactions with other macromolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids), suggesting that domain shuffling and macromolecule interaction might be fundamental for bioadhesive evolution.

Bio-based and bio-inspired adhesives from animals and plants for biomedical applications

With the "many-headed" slime mold Physarum polycelphalum having been voted the unicellular organism of the year 2021 by the German Society of Protozoology, we are reminded that a large part of nature's huge variety of life forms is easily overlooked - both by the general public and researchers alike. Indeed, whereas several animals such as mussels or spiders have already inspired many scientists to create novel materials with glue-like properties, there is much more to discover in the flora and fauna. Here, we provide an overview of naturally occurring slimy substances with adhesive properties and categorize them in terms of the main chemical motifs that convey their stickiness, i.e., carbohydrate-, protein-, and glycoprotein-based biological glues. Furthermore, we highlight selected recent developments in the area of material design and functionalization that aim at making use of such biological compounds for novel applications in medicine - either by conjugating adhesive motifs found in nature to biological or synthetic macromolecules or by synthetically creating (multi-)functional materials, which combine adhesive properties with additional, problem-specific (and sometimes tunable) features.

Biomaterials from the sea: Future building blocks for biomedical applications

Marine resources have tremendous potential for developing high-value biomaterials. The last decade has seen an increasing number of biomaterials that originate from marine organisms. This field is rapidly evolving. Marine biomaterials experience several periods of discovery and development ranging from coralline bone graft to polysaccharide-based biomaterials. The latter are represented by chitin and chitosan, marine-derived collagen, and composites of different organisms of marine origin. The diversity of marine natural products, their properties and applications are discussed thoroughly in the present review. These materials are easily available and possess excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and potent bioactive characteristics. Important applications of marine biomaterials include medical applications, antimicrobial agents, drug delivery agents, anticoagulants, rehabilitation of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, bone diseases and diabetes, as well as comestible, cosmetic and industrial applications.

Design principles for creating synthetic underwater adhesives

Water and adhesives have a conflicting relationship as demonstrated by the failure of most man-made adhesives in underwater environments. However, living creatures routinely adhere to substrates underwater. For example, sandcastle worms create protective reefs underwater by secreting a cocktail of protein glue that binds mineral particles together, and mussels attach themselves to rocks near tide-swept sea shores using byssal threads formed from their extracellular secretions. Over the past few decades, the physicochemical examination of biological underwater adhesives has begun to decipher the mysteries behind underwater adhesion. These naturally occurring adhesives have inspired the creation of several synthetic materials that can stick underwater - a task that was once thought to be "impossible". This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in the science of underwater adhesion over the past few decades. In this review, we introduce the basic thermodynamics processes and kinetic parameters involved in adhesion. Second, we describe the challenges brought by water when adhering underwater. Third, we explore the adhesive mechanisms showcased by mussels and sandcastle worms to overcome the challenges brought by water. We then present a detailed review of synthetic underwater adhesives that have been reported to date. Finally, we discuss some potential applications of underwater adhesives and the current challenges in the field by using a tandem analysis of the reported chemical structures and their adhesive strength. This review is aimed to inspire and facilitate the design of novel synthetic underwater adhesives, that will, in turn expand our understanding of the physical and chemical parameters that influence underwater adhesion.

Protein-mediated bioadhesion in marine organisms: A review

Protein-mediated bioadhesion is one of the crucial physiological processes in marine organisms, by which they can firmly adhere to underwater substrates. Most marine adhesive organisms are biofoulers, causing negative effects on marine ecosystems and huge economic losses to aquaculture and maritime industries. Furthermore, adhesive proteins in these organisms are promising bionic candidates for high-performance artificial materials with great application value. In-depth understanding of the bioadhesion in marine ecosystems is of dual significance for resolving biofouling issue and developing marine bionic products. Here, we review the research progress of protein-mediated bioadhesion in marine organisms. The adhesion processes such as protein biosynthesis and secretion are similar among organisms, but the detailed features such as compositions, structures, and molecular functions of adhesive proteins are distinct. Hydroxylation, glycosylation, and phosphorylation are important post-translational modifications during the processes of adhesion. The contents of some amino acids such as glycine, tyrosine and cysteine involved in underwater adhesion are significantly higher, which is a sequence feature of barnacle cement and mussel foot proteins. The amyloid structures and conserved domains/motifs such as EGF and vWFA distributed in adhesive proteins are involved in the underwater adhesion. In addition, the oxidative cross-linking also plays an important role in marine bioadhesion. Overall, the unique and common features identified for the protein-mediated bioadhesion in diverse marine organisms here provide background information and essential reference for characterizing marine adhesive proteins and associated functional domains, formulating antifouling strategies, and developing novel biomimetic adhesives.

Devonian agglutinated polychaete tubes: all in all it's just another grain in the wall

Biomineralized and organic metazoan tubular skeletons are by far the most common in the fossil record. However, several groups of organisms are also able to agglutinate particles to construct more rigid structures. Here we present a novel type of agglutinated tube from the austral and endemic palaeobiota of the Malvinokaffric realm (Devonian, Brazil). This fossil is characterized by an agglutinated tube made of silt-sized particles forming an unusual flanged morphology that is not known from the fossil record. Besides being able to select specific particles, these organisms probably lived partially buried and were detritus/suspension feeders. Comparisons across different modern groups show that these fossils are strongly similar to tubes made by polychaetes, specifically from the family Maldanidae. If this interpretation is correct, then an early divergence of the Sedentaria clade may have occurred before the Devonian.

Omics-based molecular analyses of adhesion by aquatic invertebrates

Many aquatic invertebrates are associated with surfaces, using adhesives to attach to the substratum for locomotion, prey capture, reproduction, building or defence. Their intriguing and sophisticated biological glues have been the focus of study for decades. In all but a couple of specific taxa, however, the precise mechanisms by which the bioadhesives stick to surfaces underwater and (in many cases) harden have proved to be elusive. Since the bulk components are known to be based on proteins in most organisms, the opportunities provided by advancing 'omics technologies have revolutionised bioadhesion research. Time-consuming isolation and analysis of single molecules has been either replaced or augmented by the generation of massive data sets that describe the organism's translated genes and proteins. While these new approaches have provided resources and opportunities that have enabled physiological insights and taxonomic comparisons that were not previously possible, they do not provide the complete picture and continued multi-disciplinarity is essential. This review covers the various ways in which 'omics have contributed to our understanding of adhesion by aquatic invertebrates, with new data to illustrate key points. The associated challenges are highlighted and priorities are suggested for future research.

Seascape genomics reveals population isolation in the reef-building honeycomb worm, Sabellaria alveolata (L.)

BACKGROUND

Under the threat of climate change populations can disperse, acclimatise or evolve in order to avoid fitness loss. In light of this, it is important to understand neutral gene flow patterns as a measure of dispersal potential, but also adaptive genetic variation as a measure of evolutionary potential. In order to assess genetic variation and how this relates to environment in the honeycomb worm (Sabellaria alveolata (L.)), a reef-building polychaete that supports high biodiversity, we carried out RAD sequencing using individuals from along its complete latitudinal range. Patterns of neutral population genetic structure were compared to larval dispersal as predicted by ocean circulation modelling, and outlier analyses and genotype-environment association tests were used to attempt to identify loci under selection in relation to local temperature data.

RESULTS

We genotyped 482 filtered SNPs, from 68 individuals across nine sites, 27 of which were identified as outliers using BAYESCAN and ARLEQUIN. All outlier loci were potentially under balancing selection, despite previous evidence of local adaptation in the system. Limited gene flow was observed among reef-sites (FST = 0.28 ± 0.10), in line with the low dispersal potential identified by the larval dispersal models. The North Atlantic reef emerged as a distinct population and this was linked to high local larval retention and the effect of the North Atlantic Current on dispersal.

CONCLUSIONS

As an isolated population, with limited potential for natural genetic or demographic augmentation from other reefs, the North Atlantic site warrants conservation attention in order to preserve not only this species, but above all the crucial functional ecological roles that are associated with their bioconstructions. Our study highlights the utility of using seascape genomics to identify populations of conservation concern.

Insights into the Synthesis, Secretion and Curing of Barnacle Cyprid Adhesive via Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analyses of the Cement Gland

Barnacles represent one of the model organisms used for antifouling research, however, knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying barnacle cyprid cementation is relatively scarce. Here, RNA-seq was used to obtain the transcriptomes of the cement glands where adhesive is generated and the remaining carcasses of Megabalanus volcano cyprids. Comparative transcriptomic analysis identified 9060 differentially expressed genes, with 4383 upregulated in the cement glands. Four cement proteins, named Mvcp113k, Mvcp130k, Mvcp52k and Mvlcp1-122k, were detected in the cement glands. The salivary secretion pathway was significantly enriched in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes, implying that the secretion of cyprid adhesive might be analogous to that of saliva. Lysyl oxidase had a higher expression level in the cement glands and was speculated to function in the curing of cyprid adhesive. Furthermore, the KEGG enrichment analysis of the 352 proteins identified in the cement gland proteome partially confirmed the comparative transcriptomic results. These results present insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the synthesis, secretion and curing of barnacle cyprid adhesive and provide potential molecular targets for the development of environmentally friendly antifouling compounds.

Marine invertebrates are a source of bioadhesives with biomimetic interest

Protein-based bioadhesives are found in diverse marine invertebrates that developed attachment devices to adhere to various substrates. These adhesives are of interest to materials science to create bioinspired-adhesives that can perform in water or wet conditions and can be applied in a broad variety of biotechnological and industrial fields. Due to the high variety of invertebrates that inhabit the marine environment, an enormous diversity of structures and principles used in biological adhesives remains unexplored and a very limited number of model systems have inspired novel biomimetic adhesives, the most notable being the mussel byssus adhesive. In this review we give an overview of other marine invertebrates studied for their bioadhesive properties in view of their interest for the development of new biomimetic adhesives for application in the biomedical field but also for antifouling coatings. The molecular features are described, highlighting relevant structures, and examples of biomimetic materials are discussed and explored, opening an avenue for a new set of medical products.

Sabellaria alveolata sandcastle worm from the Mediterranean Sea: new insights on tube architecture and biocement

The Atlantic-Mediterranean polychaete Sabellaria alveolata lives in agglutinated tubes adjoined to each other to form discrete reef-like bioconstructions in shallow-water settings characterised by high hydrodynamic energy where sediment particles are constantly resuspended. Tubes are built with sand grains glued by proteinaceous secretions. Analyses of a reef fragment collected near Sampieri (SE Sicily, Sicily Strait) allowed the first detailed description of the tube architecture and biocement of this worms from the Mediterranean. The tube consists of an inner thin organic membrane and three agglutinated layers including: (a) a thin inner layer of flat grains arranged side by side; (b) a thick mid layer with a frame of relatively large sub-rounded grains with cavities partly filled by small grains; and (c) a thin outer layer of large, flat to curved, usually biogenic clasts diverging towards the opening. This particular architecture is distinctive of the family. Morphological and epifluorescence observations revealed that biocement consists of drops at the contact between sub-spherical grains and strips along edges of flat grains. Biocement is a solid foam-like material characterised by high abundance of carbon; the presence of phosphorous and nitrogen confirms its proteinaceous composition. Due to the electrostatic interaction with the proteins, calcium and magnesium are most likely complexed to the cement rather than being trapped in the cells. These elements contribute to the solidification of the glue and stabilisation of the tube structure. However, the organic nature of cement and the high energy of their habitat, make sabellariid reefs dynamic and ephemeral, and the preservation as fossils unlikely, with a confident record only extending back to the Miocene.

Structure, development, and functional morphology of the cement gland of the giant danio, Devario malabaricus

BACKGROUND

Aquatic species in several clades possess cement glands producing adhesive secretions of various strengths. In vertebrates, transient adhesive organs have been extensively studied in Xenopus laevis, other anurans, and in several fish species. However, the development of these structures is not fully understood.

RESULTS

Here, we report on the development and functional morphology of the adhesive gland of a giant danio species, Devario malabaricus. We found that the gland is localized on the larval head, is composed of goblet-like secretory cells framed by basal, bordering, and intercalated apical epithelial cells, and is innervated by the trigeminal ganglion. The gland allows nonswimming larvae to adhere to various substrates. Its secretory cells differentiate by 12 hours postfertilization and begin to disappear in the second week of life. Exogenous retinoic acid disrupts the gland's patterning. More importantly, the single mature gland emerges from fusion of two differentiated secretory cells fields; this fusion is dependent on nonmuscle myosin II function.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our studies provide the first documentation of the embryonic development, structure, and function of the adhesive apparatus of a danioninae. To our knowledge, this is also the first report of a cement gland arising from convergence of two bilateral fields.

Transcriptional characterisation of the Exaiptasia pallida pedal disc

BACKGROUND

Biological adhesion (bioadhesion), enables organisms to attach to surfaces as well as to a range of other targets. Bioadhesion evolved numerous times independently and is ubiquitous throughout the kingdoms of life. To date, investigations have focussed on various taxa of animals, plants and bacteria, but the fundamental processes underlying bioadhesion and the degree of conservation in different biological systems remain poorly understood. This study had two aims: 1) To characterise tissue-specific gene regulation in the pedal disc of the model cnidarian Exaiptasia pallida, and 2) to elucidate putative genes involved in pedal disc adhesion.

RESULTS

Five hundred and forty-seven genes were differentially expressed in the pedal disc compared to the rest of the animal. Four hundred and twenty-seven genes were significantly upregulated and 120 genes were significantly downregulated. Forty-one condensed gene ontology terms and 19 protein superfamily classifications were enriched in the pedal disc. Eight condensed gene ontology terms and 11 protein superfamily classifications were depleted. Enriched superfamilies were consistent with classifications identified previously as important for the bioadhesion of unrelated marine invertebrates. A host of genes involved in regulation of extracellular matrix generation and degradation were identified, as well as others related to development and immunity. Ab initio prediction identified 173 upregulated genes that putatively code for extracellularly secreted proteins.

CONCLUSION

The analytical workflow facilitated identification of genes putatively involved in adhesion, immunity, defence and development of the E. pallida pedal disc. When defence, immunity and development-related genes were identified, those remaining corresponded most closely to formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM), implicating ECM in the adhesion of anemones to surfaces. This study therefore provides a valuable high-throughput resource for the bioadhesion community and lays a foundation for further targeted research to elucidate bioadhesion in the Cnidaria.

Fingerprinting of Proteins that Mediate Quagga Mussel Adhesion using a De Novo Assembled Foot Transcriptome

The European freshwater mollusk Dreissena bugensis (quagga mussel), an invasive species to North America, adheres to surfaces underwater via the byssus: a non-living protein 'anchor'. In spite of its importance as a biofouling species, the sequence of the majority of byssal proteins responsible for adhesion are not known, and little genomic data is available. To determine protein sequence information, we utilized next-generation RNA sequencing and de novo assembly to construct a cDNA library of the quagga mussel foot transcriptome, which contains over 200,000 transcripts. Quagga mussel byssal proteins were extracted from freshly induced secretions and analyzed using LC-MS/MS; peptide spectra were matched to the transcriptome to fingerprint the entire protein primary sequences. We present the full sequences of fourteen novel quagga mussel byssal proteins, named Dreissena bugensis foot proteins 4 to 17 (Dbfp4-Dbfp17), and new sequence data for two previously observed byssal proteins Dbfp1 and Dbfp2. Theoretical masses of the newly discovered proteins range from 4.3 kDa to 21.6 kDa. These protein sequences are unique but contain features similar to glue proteins from other species, including a high degree of polymorphism, proteins with repeated peptide motifs, disordered protein structure, and block structures.

In Silico Analysis of Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) Transcriptome over Developmental Stages Reveals Candidate Genes for Larval Settlement

Following their planktonic phase, the larvae of benthic marine organisms must locate a suitable habitat to settle and metamorphose. For oysters, larval adhesion occurs at the pediveliger stage with the secretion of a proteinaceous bioadhesive produced by the foot, a specialized and ephemeral organ. Oyster bioadhesive is highly resistant to proteomic extraction and is only produced in very low quantities, which explains why it has been very little examined in larvae to date. In silico analysis of nucleic acid databases could help to identify genes of interest implicated in settlement. In this work, the publicly available transcriptome of Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas over its developmental stages was mined to select genes highly expressed at the pediveliger stage. Our analysis revealed 59 sequences potentially implicated in adhesion of C. gigas larvae. Some related proteins contain conserved domains already described in other bioadhesives. We propose a hypothetic composition of C. gigas bioadhesive in which the protein constituent is probably composed of collagen and the von Willebrand Factor domain could play a role in adhesive cohesion. Genes coding for enzymes implicated in DOPA chemistry were also detected, indicating that this modification is also potentially present in the adhesive of pediveliger larvae.

Delegating Sex: Differential Gene Expression in Stolonizing Syllids Uncovers the Hormonal Control of Reproduction

Stolonization in syllid annelids is a unique mode of reproduction among animals. During the breeding season, a structure resembling the adult but containing only gametes, called stolon, is formed generally at the posterior end of the animal. When stolons mature, they detach from the adult and gametes are released into the water column. The process is synchronized within each species, and it has been reported to be under environmental and endogenous control, probably via endocrine regulation. To further understand reproduction in syllids and to elucidate the molecular toolkit underlying stolonization, we generated Illumina RNA-seq data from different tissues of reproductive and nonreproductive individuals of Syllis magdalena and characterized gene expression during the stolonization process. Several genes involved in gametogenesis (ovochymase, vitellogenin, testis-specific serine/threonine-kinase), immune response (complement receptor 2), neuronal development (tyrosine-protein kinase Src42A), cell proliferation (alpha-1D adrenergic receptor), and steroid metabolism (hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2) were found differentially expressed in the different tissues and conditions analyzed. In addition, our findings suggest that several neurohormones, such as methyl farnesoate, dopamine, and serotonin, might trigger stolon formation, the correct maturation of gametes and the detachment of stolons when gametogenesis ends. The process seems to be under circadian control, as indicated by the expression patterns of r-opsins. Overall, our results shed light into the genes that orchestrate the onset of gamete formation and improve our understanding of how some hormones, previously reported to be involved in reproduction and metamorphosis processes in other invertebrates, seem to also regulate reproduction via stolonization.