Stimulus-responsive polymeric nanogels as smart drug delivery systems

Glycan-based scaffolds and nanoparticles as drug delivery system in cancer therapy

Glycan-based scaffolds are unique in their high specificity, versatility, low immunogenicity, and ability to mimic natural carbohydrates, making them attractive candidates for use in cancer treatment. These scaffolds are made up of glycans, which are biopolymers with well biocompatibility in the human body that can be used for drug delivery. The versatility of glycan-based scaffolds allows for the modulation of drug activity and targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues, which increases the potency of drugs and reduces side effects. Despite their promise, there are still technical challenges in the design and production of glycan-based scaffolds, as well as limitations in their therapeutic efficacy and specificity.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Sub-100 nm carriers by template polymerization for drug delivery applications

Size-controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical sciences due to their potential to enhance drug efficacy, minimize side effects, and improve patient compliance. This review provides a concise overview of the preparation method, advancements, and applications of size-controlled drug delivery systems focusing on the sub-100 nm size DDSs. The importance of tailoring the size for achieving therapeutic goals is briefly mentioned. We highlight the concept of "template polymerization", a well-established method in covalent polymerization that offers precise control over molecular weight. We demonstrate the utility of this approach in crafting a monolayer of a polymer around biomolecule templates such as DNA, RNA, and protein, achieving the generation of DDSs with sizes ranging from several tens of nanometers. A few representative examples of small-size DDSs that share a conceptual similarity to "template polymerization" are also discussed. This review concludes by briefly discussing the drug release behaviors and the future prospects of "template polymerization" for the development of innovative size-controlled drug delivery systems, which promise to optimize drug delivery precision, efficacy, and safety.

Surface Topology of Redox- and Thermoresponsive Nanogel Droplets

Hydrogels are usually depicted as a homogenous polymer block with a distinct surface. While defects in the polymer structure are looked into frequently, structural irregularities on the hydrogel surface are often neglected. In this work, thin hydrogel layers of ≈100 nm thickness (nanogels) are synthesized and characterized for their structural irregularities, as they represent the surface of macrogels. The nanogels contain a main-chain responsiveness (thermo responsive) and a responsiveness in the cross-linking points (redox responsive). By combining data from ellipsometry using box-model and two-segment-model analysis, as well as atomic force microscopy, a more defined model of the nanogel surface can be developed. Starting with a more densely cross-linked network at the silica wafer surface, the density of cross-linking gradually decreases toward the hydrogel-solvent interface. Thermo-responsive behavior of the main chain affects the entire network equally as all chain segments change solubility. Cross-linker-based redox-responsiveness, on the other hand, is only governed by the inner, more cross-linked layers of the network. Such dual responsive nanogels hence allow for developing a more detailed model of a hydrogel surface from free radical polymerization. It provides a better understanding of structural defects in hydrogels and how they are affected by responsive functionalities.

Oral Delivery of Photopolymerizable Nanogels Loaded with Gemcitabine for Pancreatic Cancer Therapy: Formulation Design, and in vitro and in vivo Evaluations

Background

Gemcitabine (GEM) faces challenges of poor oral bioavailability and extensive first-pass metabolism. Currently, only injectable formulations are available for clinical use. Hence, there is an urgent demand for the development of advanced, efficacious, and user-friendly dosage forms to maintain its status as the primary treatment for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Nanogels (NGs) offer a novel oral drug delivery system, ideal for hydrophilic compounds like GEM. This study aims to develop NGs tailored for GEM delivery, with the goal of enhancing cellular uptake and gastrointestinal permeability for improved administration in PDAC patients.

Methods

We developed cross-linked NGs via photopolymerization of methacryloyl for drug delivery of GEM. We reveal characterization, cytotoxicity, and cellular uptake studies in Caco-2 and MIA PaCa-2 cells. In addition, studies of in vitro permeability and pharmacokinetics were carried out to evaluate the bioavailability of the drug.

Results

Our results show NGs, formed via photopolymerization of methacryloyl, had a spherical shape with a size of 233.91±7.75 nm. Gemcitabine-loaded NGs (NGs-GEM) with 5% GelMA exhibited efficient drug loading (particle size: 244.07±19.52 nm). In vitro drug release from NGs-GEM was slower at pH 1.2 than pH 6.8. Cellular uptake studies indicated significantly enhanced uptake in both MIA PaCa-2 and Caco-2 cells. While there was no significant difference in GEM's AUC and Cmax between NGs-GEM and free-GEM groups, NGs-GEM showed markedly lower dFdU content (10.07 hr∙μg/mL) compared to oral free-GEM (19.04 hr∙μg/mL) after oral administration (p<0.01), highlighting NGs' efficacy in impeding rapid drug metabolism and enhancing retention.

Conclusion

In summary, NGs enhance cellular uptake, inhibit rapid metabolic degradation of GEM, and prolong retention after oral administration. These findings suggest NGs-GEM as a promising candidate for clinical use in oral pancreatic cancer therapy.

pH-Responsive Nanogels Generated by Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly of a Succinate-Functional Monomer

Colloidal nanogels formed from a pH-responsive poly(succinate)-functional core and a poly(sulfonate)-functional corona were prepared via a previously unreported reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT)-mediated aqueous emulsion polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) route. Specifically, a poly(potassium 3-sulfopropyl methacrylate) (PKSPMA50) macromolecular chain-transfer agent (macro-CTA) was synthesized via RAFT solution polymerization followed by chain-extension with a hydrophobic, carboxylic acid-functional, 2-(methacryloyloxy) ethyl succinate (MES) monomer at pH 2. Colloidal nanoparticles with tunable diameters between 66 to 150 nm, depending on the core composition, and narrow particle size distributions were obtained at 20% w/w solids. Well-defined pH-responsive nanogels that swell on increasing the pH could be prepared even without the addition of a cross-linking comonomer, and introducing an additional cross-linker to the core led to smaller nanogels with lower swelling ratios. These nanogels could reversibly change in size on cycling the pH between acidic and basic conditions and remain colloidally stable over a wide pH range and at 70 °C.

Natural Polymer-Based Nanogel for pH-Responsive Delivery of Sorafenib Tosylate in Hemangiosarcoma

Smart nanomedicinal treatment for cancer manifests a solubility challenge with inherent nanoscale size and nonspecific release with stimuli-responsive potential. This is the limelight in novel chemotherapy to pursue physiochemical differences between the tumor microenvironment (TME) and normal cells, which introduces active groups of nanocarriers responding to various stimuli, endowing them with concise responses to various tumor-related signals. The nanogels were successfully prepared by a modified solvent evaporation technique. Nine batches were formulated by changing the chitosan concentration (12, 14, 16 mg/ml) and sonication time (5, 10, 15 min). The formulations were optimized for particle size and zeta potential with high percent entrapment efficiency (%EE) through Central Composite Design software. The optimized batch F7 had a 182-nm size and high zeta potential (64.5 mV) with 98% EE. The drug release of F7 was higher at pH 6 (97.556%) than at pH 7.4 (45.113%). The pharmacokinetic study shows that the release follows the Hixon plot model (R2 = 0.9334) that shifts to zero order (R2 = 0.9149). The nanogel F7 was observed for stability and showed an absence of color change, phase separation, and opacity for 6 months. In the present study, the pH difference between cancer cells and normal cells is the key point of the smart nanogel. This study is promising but challenging depending on the in vivo study. The nanogel was successfully prepared and evaluated for pH-responsive release. As hemangiosarcoma commonly occurs in dogs, this formulation helps to limit the difficulties with administration.

Polymeric Nanohydrogel in Topical Drug Delivery System

Nanohydrogels (NH) are biodegradable polymers that have been extensively studied and utilized for various biomedical applications. Drugs in a topical medication are absorbed via the skin and carried to the intended location, where they are metabolized and eliminated from the body. With a focus on their pertinent contemporary treatments, this review aims to give a complete overview of recent advances in the creation and application of polymer NH in biomedicine. We will explore the key features that have driven advances in nanotechnology and discuss the significance of nanohydrogel-based formulations as vehicles for delivering therapeutic agents topically. The review will also cover the latest findings and references from the literature to support the advancements in nanotechnological technology related to the preparation and application of NH. In addition, we will also discuss the unique properties and potential applications of NH as drug delivery systems (DDS) for skin applications, underscoring their potential for effective topical therapeutic delivery. The challenge lies in efficiently delivering drugs through the skin's barrier to specific areas with high control. Environmentally sensitive systems, like polymer-based NH, show promise in treating dermatological conditions. Polymers are pivotal in developing these drug delivery systems, with NH offering advantages such as versatile drug loading, controlled release, and enhanced skin penetration.

Modular Fabrication of Bioorthogonal Nanozymes for Biomedical Applications

The incorporation of transition metal catalysts (TMCs) into nanoscaffolds generates nanocatalysts that replicate key aspects of enzymatic behavior. The TMCs can access bioorthogonal chemistry unavailable to living systems. These bioorthogonal nanozymes can be employed as in situ "factories" for generating bioactive molecules where needed. The generation of effective bioorthogonal nanozymes requires co-engineering of the TMC and the nanometric scaffold. This review presents an overview of recent advances in the field of bioorthogonal nanozymes, focusing on modular design aspects of both nanomaterial and catalyst and how they synergistically work together for in situ uncaging of imaging and therapeutic agents.

Retention of Ciprofloxacin and Carbamazepine from Aqueous Solutions Using Chitosan-Based Cryostructured Composites

Water pollution is becoming a great concern at the global level due to highly polluted effluents, which are charged year by year with increasing amounts of organic residues, dyes, pharmaceuticals and heavy metals. For some of these pollutants, the industrial treatment of wastewater is still relevant. Yet, in some cases, such as pharmaceuticals, specific treatment schemes are urgently required. Therefore, the present study describes the synthesis and evaluation of promising cryostructured composite adsorbents based on chitosan containing native minerals and two types of reinforcement materials (functionalized kaolin and synthetic silicate microparticles). The targeted pharmaceuticals refer to the ciprofloxacin (CIP) antibiotic and the carbamazepine (CBZ) drug, for which the current water treatment process seem to be less efficient, making them appear in exceedingly high concentrations, even in tap water. The study reveals first the progress made for improving the mechanical stability and resilience to water disintegration, as a function of pH, of chitosan-based cryostructures. Further on, a retention study shows that both pharmaceuticals are retained with high efficiency (up to 85.94% CIP and 86.38% CBZ) from diluted aqueous solutions.

Research progress on cuproptosis in cancer

Cuproptosis is a recently discovered form of cell death that is mediated by copper (Cu) and is a non-apoptotic form of cell death related to oligomerization of lipoylated proteins and loss of Fe-S protein clusters. Since its discovery, cuproptosis has been extensively studied by researchers for its mechanism and potential applications in the treatment of cancer. Therefore, this article reviews the specific mechanism of cuproptosis currently studied, as well as its principles and strategies for use in anti-cancer treatment, with the aim of providing a reference for cuproptosis-based cancer therapy.

Recent advances in stimuli-responsive tailored nanogels for cancer therapy; from bench to personalized treatment

To improve the quality of health in a personalized manner, better control over pharmacologically relevant cargo formulation, organ-specific targeted delivery, and on-demand release of therapeutic agents is crucial. Significant work has been put into designing and developing revolutionary nanotherapeutics approaches for the effective monitoring and personalized treatment of disease. Nanogel (NG) has attracted significant interest because of its tremendous potential in cancer therapy and its environmental stimuli responsiveness. NG is considered a next-generation delivery technology due to its benefits like as size tunability, high loading, stimuli responsiveness, prolonged drug release via in situ gelling mechanisms, stability, and its potential to provide personalized therapy from the investigation of human genes and the genes in various types of cancers and its association with a selective anticancer drug. Stimuli-responsive NGs can be used as smart nanomedicines to detect and treat cancer and can be tuned as personalized medicine as well. This comprehensive review article's major objectives include the challenges of NGs' clinical translation for cancer treatment as well as its early preclinical successes and prospects.

Multi-Stimuli-Responsive and Cell Membrane Camouflaged Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanogels for Precise Chemo-photothermal Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Targeted and controllable drug release at lesion sites with the aid of visual navigation in real-time is of great significance for precise theranostics of cancers. Benefiting from the marvelous features (e.g., bright emission and phototheranostic effects in aggregates) of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials, constructing AIE-based multifunctional nanocarriers that act as all-arounders to integrate multimodalities for precise theranostics is highly desirable. Here, an intelligent nanoplatform (P-TN-Dox@CM) with homologous targeting, controllable drug release, and in vivo dual-modal imaging for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy is proposed. AIE photothermic agent (TN) and anticancer drug (Dox) are encapsulated in thermo-/pH-responsive nanogels (PNA), and the tumor cell membranes are camouflaged onto the surface of nanogels. Active targeting can be realized through homologous effects derived from source tumor cell membranes, which advantageously elevates the specific drug delivery to tumor sites. After being engulfed into tumor cells, the nanogels exhibit a burst drug release at low pH. The near-infrared (NIR) photoinduced local hyperthermia can activate severe cytotoxicity and further accelerate drug release, thus generating enhanced synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy to thoroughly eradicate tumors. Moreover, P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels could achieve NIR-fluorescence/photothermal dual-modal imaging to monitor the dynamic distribution of therapeutics in real-time. This work highlights the great potential of smart P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels as a versatile nanoplatform to integrate multimodalities for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy in combating cancers.

Smart Responsive and Controlled-Release Hydrogels for Chronic Wound Treatment

Chronic wounds are a major health challenge that require new treatment strategies. Hydrogels are promising drug delivery systems for chronic wound healing because of their biocompatibility, hydration, and flexibility. However, conventional hydrogels cannot adapt to the dynamic and complex wound environment, which involves low pH, high levels of reactive oxygen species, and specific enzyme expression. Therefore, smart responsive hydrogels that can sense and respond to these stimuli are needed. Crucially, smart responsive hydrogels can modulate drug release and eliminate pathological factors by changing their properties or structures in response to internal or external stimuli, such as pH, enzymes, light, and electricity. These stimuli can also be used to trigger antibacterial responses, angiogenesis, and cell proliferation to enhance wound healing. In this review, we introduce the synthesis and principles of smart responsive hydrogels, describe their design and applications for chronic wound healing, and discuss their future development directions. We hope that this review will inspire the development of smart responsive hydrogels for chronic wound healing.

Potential Application of Ovalbumin Gel Nanoparticles Loaded with Carvacrol in the Preservation of Fresh Pork

Plant essential oil has attracted much attention in delaying pork spoilage due to its safety, but its low antibacterial efficiency needs to be solved by encapsulation. Our previous research had fabricated a type of ovalbumin gel nanoparticles loaded with carvacrol (OCGn-2) using the gel-embedding method, which had a high encapsulation rate and antibacterial activity. The main purpose of this study was to further evaluate the stability and slow-release characteristics of OCGn-2 and potential quality effects of the nanoparticles on the preservation of fresh pork pieces during 4 °C storage. The particle test showed that the nanoparticles had better heat stability below 85 °C and salt stability below 90 mM. The in vitro release study indicated that the carvacrol in OCGn-2 followed a Fickian release mechanism. The pork preservation test suggested that the OCGn-2 coating treatments could remarkably restrict the quality decay of pork slices compared to free carvacrol or a physical mixture of ovalbumin and carvacrol treatment. Nano-encapsulation of ovalbumin is beneficial to the sustained release, enhanced oxidation resistance, and improved antibacterial activity of carvacrol. The study suggested that ovalbumin gel nanoparticles embedded with carvacrol could be applied as an efficient bacterial active packaging to extend the storage life of pork.

Efficient Construction of pH-Stimuli-Responsive Colloidosomes with High Encapsulation Efficiency

Intelligent responsive colloidosomes have attracted increasing attention for their potential to enhance the efficacy and decrease the side effects of drugs in biomedical applications. However, a low encapsulation efficiency and complicated preparation method greatly limit their development. Herein, we report an efficient approach for the construction of pH-stimuli-responsive colloidosomes with high encapsulation efficiency by a high-gravity technology. The conditions under which latex particles with different methacrylic acid contents can successfully self-assemble into colloidosomes are explored. During the preparation process, emulsions emulsified for only 10 min at 2500 rpm in a unique high-gravity shearing surroundings are clarified owing to the greatly enhanced micromixing, while the emulsions emulsified for 30 min by a traditional high-speed shear machine at 4000 rpm are still yellow-white. More importantly, regular spherical colloidosomes encapsulating an anticancer drug doxorubicin not only achieve a small mean diameter of 2.82 μm but also realize a high encapsulation efficiency of 76.5%. The release performance of doxorubicin has an obvious pH-stimuli-responsive regularity and follows the first-order model of sustained release. The construction of intelligent responsive colloidosomes as drug carriers provides a route for controlled drug release and biomedical applications.

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Honokiol: Enhancing Therapeutic Potential and Overcoming Limitations

Honokiol (HNK) is a small-molecule polyphenol that has garnered considerable attention due to its diverse pharmacological properties, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-obesity effects. However, its clinical application is restricted by challenges such as low solubility, poor bioavailability, and rapid metabolism. To overcome these limitations, researchers have developed a variety of nano-formulations for HNK delivery. These nano-formulations offer advantages such as enhanced solubility, improved bioavailability, extended circulation time, and targeted drug delivery. However, existing reviews of HNK primarily focus on its clinical and pharmacological features, leaving a gap in the comprehensive evaluation of HNK delivery systems based on nanotechnology. This paper aims to bridge this gap by comprehensively reviewing different types of nanomaterials used for HNK delivery over the past 15 years. These materials encompass vesicle delivery systems, nanoparticles, polymer micelles, nanogels, and various other nanocarriers. The paper details various HNK nano-delivery strategies and summarizes their latest applications, development prospects, and future challenges. To compile this review, we conducted an extensive search using keywords such as "honokiol", "nanotechnology", and "drug delivery system" on reputable databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, covering the period from 2008 to 2023. Through this search, we identified and selected approximately 90 articles that met our specific criteria.

Hybrid nanogels by direct mixing of chitosan, tannic acid and magnetite nanoparticles: processes involved in their formation and potential catalytic properties

Magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (MNPs) as nanocatalysts have drawn considerable attention because of their unique properties such as peroxidase-like activity. However, their biodistribution and availability for specific treatments still need to be improved. In this study, a simple and convenient strategy for the synthesis of hybrid nanogels (NGs) is described, which involves direct mixing of biomaterials such as chitosan (Ch) and tannic acid (TA), with the incorporation of MNPs, under oxidising conditions, using the inverse nanoemulsion method. The different processes involved in the formation of these hybrid nanosystems as well as their morphological and chemical structure are investigated using optical, spectroscopic, and electron microscopic techniques (DLS, UV-VIS, FT-IR, XPS, TEM, and SEM-EDS). It is demonstrated that ∼11 nm synthesized MNPs, post-functionalized with oxidised TA, act as covalent crosslinkers. As a proof of concept, the potential use of these materials in nanocatalytic medicine was evaluated using a colorimetric method based on the oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) in hydrogen peroxide. The results show that these hybrid nanogels have the same peroxidase-like activity as bare MNPs, indicating that the organic nanostructure stabilises the inorganic nanoparticles without any significant change in the catalytic properties. Therefore, this kind of nanomaterial has promising potential for use in nanocatalytic medicine with improved biocompatibility and biodistribution.

Porous silicon embedded in a thermoresponsive hydrogel for intranasal delivery of lipophilic drugs to treat rhinosinusitis

Intranasal delivery is the most preferred route of drug administration for treatment of a range of nasal conditions including chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), caused by an infection and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. However, localised delivery of lipophilic drugs for persistent nasal inflammation is a challenge especially with traditional topical nasal sprays. In this study, a composite thermoresponsive hydrogel is developed and tuned to obtain desired rheological and physiochemical properties suitable for intranasal administration of lipophilic drugs. The composite is comprised of drug-loaded porous silicon (pSi) particles embedded in a poloxamer 407 (P407) hydrogel matrix. Mometasone Furoate (MF), a lipophilic corticosteroid (log P of 4.11), is used as the drug, which is loaded onto pSi particles at a loading capacity of 28 wt%. The MF-loaded pSi particles (MF@pSi) are incorporated into the P407-based thermoresponsive hydrogel (HG) matrix to form the composite hydrogel (MF@pSi-HG) with a final drug content ranging between 0.1 wt% to 0.5 wt%. Rheomechanical studies indicate that the MF@pSi component exerts a minimal impact on gelation temperature or strength of the hydrogel host. The in-vitro release of the MF payload from MF@pSi-HG shows a pronounced increase in the amount of drug released over 8 h (4.5 to 21-fold) in comparison to controls consisting of pure MF incorporated in hydrogel (MF@HG), indicating an improvement in kinetic solubility of MF upon loading into pSi. Ex-vivo toxicity studies conducted on human nasal mucosal tissue show no adverse effect from exposure to either pure HG or the MF@pSi-HG formulation, even at the highest drug content of 0.5 wt%. Experiments on human nasal mucosal tissue show the MF@pSi-HG formulation deposits a quantity of MF into the tissues within 8 h that is >19 times greater than the MF@HG control (194 ± 7 μg of MF/g of tissue vs. <10 μg of MF/g of tissue, respectively).

Nano-injectable pH/NIR-responsive hydrogel for chemo-photothermal synergistic drug delivery

Conventional cancer treatments are highly toxic and ineffective; therefore, it is essential to develop less toxic and minimally invasive treatment methods. A pH/Near Infra-red (NIR) dual-responsive, nano-injectable smart hydrogel was fabricated by incorporating CuS nanoparticles into the hydrogel networks formed by a random copolymer of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) and double-bond functionalized uracil. Microstructural characterizations of synthesized polymer and hydrogels were carried out using transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Multiple hydrogen bonding interactions between uracils function as physical cross-linking points to construct the network structure of the polymeric nanogel without the addition of additional cross-linking agents, ensuring the material's safety. The amino group on the structure of uracil gives the uracil-modified polymeric hydrogel excellent pH responsiveness. Notably, as a temperature-responsive material, poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) nanogel solution can achieve in situ gel formation (within 100 s at 37°C) above its lower critical solution temperature (LCST), granting injectability to polymeric solutions. Moreover, using a hierarchical construction strategy, the variable loading of DOX and CuS was achieved. First, a heterogeneous system was created by encapsulating doxorubicin (DOX) inside the nanogel via hydrophobic and π-π stacking interactions, followed by the introduction of CuS nanoparticles as photosensitizers outside of the nanogels. Due to the presence of CuS nanoparticles, the gel is able to convert NIR light into local heat to enhance the destruction of tumor cells while simultaneously achieving rapid in situ gel formation. The in situ-forming hydrogel showed promising tissue biocompatibility. The in vitro antitumor test demonstrated the capacity of the nanocomposite hydrogel for chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy. Therefore, this prepared platform has the potential to become a safe and effective, smart-responsive drug carrier for chemotherapy and PTT synergy, a minimally invasive material for tumor treatment.

Stimuli-Responsive and Multifunctional Nanogels in Drug Delivery

Nanogels represent promising drug delivery systems in the biomedical field, designed to overcome challenges associated with standard treatment approaches. Stimuli-responsive nanogels, often referred to as intelligent materials, have garnered significant attention for their potential to enhance control over properties such as drug release and targeting. Furthermore, researchers have recently explored the application of nanogels in diverse sectors beyond biomedicine including sensing materials, catalysts, or adsorbents for environmental applications. However, to fully harness their potential as practical delivery systems, further research is required to better understand their pharmacokinetic behaviour, interactions between nanogels and bio distributions, as well as toxicities. One promising future application of stimuli-responsive multifunctional nanogels is their use as delivery agents in cancer treatment, offering an alternative to overcome the challenges with conventional approaches. This review discusses various synthetic methods employed in developing nanogels as efficient carriers for drug delivery in cancer treatment. The investigations explore, the key aspects of nanogels, including their multifunctionality and stimuli-responsive properties, as well as associated toxicity concerns. The discussions presented herein aim to provide the readers a comprehensive understanding of the potential of nanogels as smart drug delivery systems in the context of cancer therapy.

pH-responsive intermediary layer cross-linked micelles from zwitterionic triblock copolymers and investigation of their drug-release behaviors

ABC-type triblock copolymers, namely poly[(ethylene glycol)methyl ether]-block-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate)-block-poly[2-N-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (MPEG-b-PBuMA-b-PDPA), were first synthesized and then the middle blocks were successfully converted into poly(methacrylic acid) to obtain MPEG-b-PMAA-b-PDPA zwitterionic triblock copolymers. These block copolymers were soluble in water and formed micellar aggregates with complex cores via hydrogen bonding interactions between MPEG and PMAA blocks below pH 4.0. When the pH was between 5.0 and 7.0, due to charge compensation between partially protonated PDPA and partially ionized PMAA blocks, micelles with polyion complex cores were observed. If the solution pH was above 8.0, deprotonation of tertiary amine groups provided a hydrophobic character to the PDPA block, which resulted in the formation of PDPA-core micelles while MPEG/anionic PMAA hybrid blocks formed hydrated coronas. Intermediary layer cross-linked (ILCL) micelles from PDPA-core micelles were also prepared by cross-linking the inner PMAA shell. The hydrophobic drug dipyridamole (DIP) was used to investigate the release profile of ILCL micelles. DIP can be loaded to the PDPA cores of the micelles in basic aqueous media. An increase in the degree of cross-linking causes slower release for the model drug. It was concluded that the more complex matrix formation in the intermediary layer of the micelles via cross-linking retards the drug release from the core.

Nanomaterial-based ophthalmic drug delivery

The low bioavailability and side effects of conventional drugs for eye disease necessitate the development of efficient drug delivery systems. Accompanying the developments of nanofabrication techniques, nanomaterials have been recognized as promising tools to overcome these challenges due to their flexible and programmable properties. Given the advances achieved in material science, a broad spectrum of functional nanomaterials capable of overcoming various ocular anterior and posterior segment barriers have been explored to satisfy the demands for ocular drug delivery. In this review, we first highlight the unique functions of nanomaterials suitable for carrying and transporting ocular drugs. Then, various functionalization strategies are emphasized to endow nanomaterials with superior performance in enhanced ophthalmic drug delivery. The rational design of several affecting factors is essential for ideal nanomaterial candidates and is depicted as well. Lastly, we introduce the current applications of nanomaterial-based delivery systems in the therapy of different ocular anterior and posterior segment diseases. The limitations of these delivery systems as well as potential solutions are also discussed. This work will inspire innovative design thinking for the development of nanotechnology-mediated strategies for advanced drug delivery and treatment toward ocular diseases.

Toward function starch nanogels by self-assembly of polysaccharide and protein: From synthesis to potential for polyphenol delivery

Nanogels formed by self-assembly of natural proteins and polysaccharides have attracted great interest as potential carriers of bioactive molecules. Herein, we reported that carboxymethyl starch-lysozyme nanogels (CMS-Ly NGs) were prepared using carboxymethyl starch and lysozyme by green and facile electrostatic self-assembly, and the nanogels served as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) delivery systems. The dimensions and structure of the prepared starch-based nanogels (i.e., CMS-Ly NGs) were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), ζ-potential, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermal gravimetric analyzer (TGA). FT-IR and 1H NMR spectra together confirmed the formation of CMS; FT-IR spectra confirmed the formation of CMS-Ly NGs; XRD spectra confirmed the disruption of the crystal structure of lysozyme after electrostatic self-assembly with CMS, and further confirmed the formation of nanogels. TGA demonstrated the thermal stability of nanogels. More importantly, the nanogels showed a high EGCG encapsulation rate of 80.0 ± 1.4 %. The CMS-Ly NGs encapsulated with EGCG exhibited regular spherical structure and stable particle size. Under the simulated gastrointestinal environmental conditions, CMS-Ly NGs encapsulated with EGCG showed the controlled release potential, which increased its utilization. Additionally, anthocyanins can also be encapsulated in CMS-Ly NGs and showed slow-release properties during gastrointestinal digestion in the same way. Cytotoxicity assay also demonstrated good biocompatibility between CMS-Ly NGs and CMS-Ly NGs encapsulated with EGCG. The findings of this research suggested the potential application of protein and polysaccharides-based nanogels in the delivery system of bioactive compounds.

Animal tissue-derived biomaterials for promoting wound healing

The skin serves as the primary barrier between the human body and external environment, and is therefore susceptible to damage from various factors. In response to this challenge, animal tissue-derived biomaterials have emerged as promising candidates for wound healing due to their abundant sources, low side-effect profiles, exceptional bioactivity, biocompatibility, and unique extracellular matrix (ECM) mimicry. The evolution of modern engineering technology and therapies has allowed these animal tissue-derived biomaterials to be transformed into various forms and modified to possess the necessary properties for wound repair. This review provides an overview of the wound healing process and the factors that influence it. We then describe the extraction methods, important properties, and recent practical applications of various animal tissue-derived biomaterials. Our focus then shifts to the critical properties of these biomaterials in skin wound healing and their latest research developments. Finally, we critically examine the limitations and future prospects of biomaterials generated from animal tissues in this field.

The design and straightforward synthesis of multifunctional DNA microgels for the improved targeted delivery of antitumor drugs

Multifunctional drug delivery platforms represent ideal approaches to reliably targeting pharmacological agents of interest to the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), yet the complicated synthesis processes, high costs, and toxicities associated with these agents have hindered their clinical application to date. In this study, the properties of the TME are leveraged to develop a multifunctional pNAB/AS DNA microgel that is able to actively target tumors. This microgel is generated by a straightforward one-step free radical precipitation polymerization procedure, exhibiting extremely high drug encapsulation efficiency (∼90%), and is responsive to three environmental stimuli including temperature, reduction, and an acidic pH while showing minimal drug leakage under physiological conditions. Through a synergistic combination of appropriate size and aptamer recognition, this microgel is able to reliably facilitate intratumoral drug accumulation and nuclear drug delivery. Critically, pNAB/AS-Dox treatment is associated with specific antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo while retaining a good biosafety profile and causing lower levels of off-target toxicity as compared to free drug treatment. Together, these findings emphasize the potential value of this multifunctional pNAB/AS DNA microgel as a platform amenable to targeted drug delivery to the TME, providing a foundation for further efforts to readily develop multifunctional drug delivery systems.

Machine learning assisted-nanomedicine using magnetic nanoparticles for central nervous system diseases

Magnetic nanoparticles possess unique properties distinct from other types of nanoparticles developed for biomedical applications. Their unique magnetic properties and multifunctionalities are especially beneficial for central nervous system (CNS) disease therapy and diagnostics, as well as targeted and personalized applications using image-guided therapy and theranostics. This review discusses the recent development of magnetic nanoparticles for CNS applications, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and drug addiction. Machine learning (ML) methods are increasingly applied towards the processing, optimization and development of nanomaterials. By using data-driven approach, ML has the potential to bridge the gap between basic research and clinical research. We review ML approaches used within the various stages of nanomedicine development, from nanoparticle synthesis and characterization to performance prediction and disease diagnosis.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Alginate-Based Nanogels as Sustained Drug Carriers for Caffeine

The objective of this study is to design a polymeric network of nanogels for sustained release of caffeine. Therefore, alginate-based nanogels were fabricated by a free-radical polymerization technique for the sustained delivery of caffeine. Polymer alginate was crosslinked with monomer 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid by crosslinker N',N'-methylene bisacrylamide. The prepared nanogels were subjected to sol-gel fraction, polymer volume fraction, swelling, drug loading, and drug release studies. A high gel fraction was seen with the increasing feed ratio of polymer, monomer, and crosslinker. Greater swelling and drug release were observed at pH 4.6 and 7.4 as compared to pH 1.2 due to the deprotonation and protonation of functional groups of alginate and 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid. An increase was observed in swelling, loading, and release of the drug with the incorporation of a high feed ratio of polymer and monomer, while a reduction was seen with the increase in crosslinker feed ratio. Similarly, an HET-CAM test was used to evaluate the safety of the prepared nanogels, which showed that the prepared nanogels have no toxic effect on the chorioallantoic membrane of fertilized chicken eggs. Similarly, different characterizations techniques such as FTIR, DSC, SEM, and particle size analysis were carried out to determine the development, thermal stability, surface morphology, and particle size of the synthesized nanogels, respectively. Thus, we can conclude that the prepared nanogels can be used as a suitable agent for the sustained release of caffeine.

Phototriggered structures: Latest advances in biomedical applications

Non-invasive control of the drug molecules accessibility is a key issue in improving diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Some studies have explored the spatiotemporal control by light as a peripheral stimulus. Phototriggered drug delivery systems (PTDDSs) have received interest in the past decade among biological researchers due to their capability the control drug release. To this end, a wide range of phototrigger molecular structures participated in the DDSs to serve additional efficiency and a high-conversion release of active fragments under light irradiation. Up to now, several categories of PTDDSs have been extended to upgrade the performance of controlled delivery of therapeutic agents based on well-known phototrigger molecular structures like o-nitrobenzyl, coumarinyl, anthracenyl, quinolinyl, o-hydroxycinnamate and hydroxyphenacyl, where either of one endows an exclusive feature and distinct mechanistic approach. This review conveys the design, photochemical properties and essential mechanism of the most important phototriggered structures for the release of single and dual (similar or different) active molecules that have the ability to quickly reason of the large variety of dynamic biological phenomena for biomedical applications like photo-regulated drug release, synergistic outcomes, real-time monitoring, and biocompatibility potential.

Biopolymer-Based Nanogel Approach in Drug Delivery: Basic Concept and Current Developments

Due to their increased surface area, extent of swelling and active substance-loading capacity and flexibility, nanogels made from natural and synthetic polymers have gained significant interest in scientific and industrial areas. In particular, the customized design and implementation of nontoxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable micro/nano carriers makes their usage very feasible for a range of biomedical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and bioimaging. The design and application methodologies of nanogels are outlined in this review. Additionally, the most recent advancements in nanogel biomedical applications are discussed, with particular emphasis on applications for the delivery of drugs and biomolecules.

Fabrication and characterization of succinylated and glycosylated soy protein isolate and its self-assembled nanogel

In this study, we used succinic anhydride (SA) acylation and dextran (DX) glycosylation modified soybean isolate protein (SPI) to develop self-assembled SPI-SA-DX adduct-based nanogels. Degree of modification, SDS-PAGE, and FT-IR studies showed that the amino group of the SPI was replaced by hydrophilic dextran and succinic acid carboxyl groups. Dextran chain and anhydride group attachment to the soybean protein surface enhanced hydrophilicity and spatial site blocking. Modification-induced protein structure unfolding, free sulfhydryl groups to be converted to disulfide bonds, and reduced surface hydrophobicity (H₀). H₀ was lowest at 33,750 ± 1008.29 when SA content = 10 % protein content (SPI-SA₃-DX). The nanometer gel based on SPI-SA₃-DX had the maximum turbidity and clear transparent solution without precipitation. Its particle size and polymer dispersibility index (PDI) were also the smallest, with values of (106.87 ± 4.51) nm and 0.21 ± 0.009, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy showed that nanogels had subspherical shell-core structures. Nanogels were stable under different pH, ionic strength, high temperature, and storage conditions.

Different Applications of Temperature responsive nanogels as a new drug delivery system mini review

Temperature-sensitive drug delivery systems (TSDDS) are one of the systems that have received more attention in medical science these days due to their advantages. As these systems are sensitive to temperature, drug delivery to the target becomes more specific. Temperature-sensitive nanogels have many applications, including microbial infections, cancer therapy, transdermal use and tissue repair. These systems are characterized by minimal toxicity, improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced exposure to normal cells. This mini-review is prepared with different types of temperature-sensitive nanogel formation, release mechanisms, and their different applications. Various systems reported under these categories for targeted and controlled delivery of different classes of drugs, such as anti-cancer and antibiotic drugs with special emphasis on anti-cancer drugs and tissue healing, are discussed in this mini-review.

Cellulose derivatives and natural gums as gelling agents for preparation of emulgel-based dosage forms: A brief review

Incorporation of an emulsion onto a gel base develops a drug delivery system with improved characteristics, known as emulgel, that can envelop both hydrophilic and lipophilic molecules, and therefore increase stability and penetration of topical formulations. Such a drug delivery system provides controlled drug release that has more patient compliance and higher therapeutic efficacy. Emulgel is prepared in three main stages, preparation of water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsion, providing the gel base, and incorporation of prepared emulsion onto gel base with continuous stirring. Various materials such as different oils (e.g. sesame oil, balsam oil, and mineral oil), emulsifiers (e.g. Tween® and Span® as the non-ionic surfactant, polyvinyl alcohol), and gelling agents including cellulose derivatives such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) in different concentrations are used in emulgel preparation. The physical properties, particle size distribution, spreadability, permeation, and drug release rate are evaluated in their development and characterization. They are used in skin disorders and other diseases such as chronic anal fisher. Also, anti-acne, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory drugs have been formulated as emulgel delivery system and their effects have been studied. In this article, the subject is to review the characteristics, preparation methods, and therapeutic efficacy as well as the potential clinical use of emulgels.

Hairy Nanocellulose-Based Supramolecular Architectures for Sustained Drug Release

The engineering of a new type of trifunctional biopolymer-based nanosponges polymerized by cross-linking beta-cyclodextrin ethylene diamine (βCD-EDA) with bifunctional hairy nanocellulose (BHNC) is reported herein. We refer to the highly cross-linked polymerized BHNC-βCD-EDA network as BBE. βCD-EDA and BHNC were cross-linked at various ratios with the help of DMTMM (4-(4,6-dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-4-methylmorpholinium) as a green activator in deionized water as a solvent, which resulted in different morphological shapes of BBE. Some of these structures were chiral due to cross-linked liquid crystalline structures. A comprehensive characterization study was done to show their unique morphological, structural, and dimensional properties of BBEs. Moreover, to further investigate and to confirm the surface modification of the precursors and final BBE structures, Fourier transform infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis, and X-ray diffraction were applied. The hairy nanocellulose particles were considered as the backbone, and the immobilized cyclodextrin cavities can capture doxorubicin, which was used as a model drug molecule via host-guest inclusion complexation. Finally, the obtained BBE networks showed different and sustained drug release profiles and pH responsiveness. BBE biopolymers were tested as biocompatible nanocarriers for controlled release. We realize that these structures are too big for anti-cancer drug delivery by injection or oral intake, but these structures have a high potential to be applied in wound dressing and implants. They could also be used for capturing antibiotics, dyes, and organic compounds from wastewater.

Normalization of Tumor Vessels by Lenvatinib-Based Metallo-Nanodrugs Alleviates Hypoxia and Enhances Calreticulin-Mediated Immune Responses in Orthotopic HCC and Organoids

Immunocheckpoint inhibitors combined with Lenvatinib is the first line treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but their potency is hampered by the low response rate and adverse events. Herein, a targeted therapeutic strategy through the coassembly of Lenvatinib, Adriamycin, Fe³⁺ ion, and a natural polyphenol (metallo-nanodrugs) is presented by coordination effect for potentiating tumor vascular normalization and systematic chemo-immunotherapy to effectively inhibit the progression of HCC in both orthotopic model and patients-derived organoids. In mice with orthotopic HCC, the obtained metallo-nanodrugs efficiently increase the drug accumulation in orthotopic tumors and can respond to acidic tumor environment. The promotion of tumor vascular normalization by metallo-nanodrugs is observed, which enhances the infiltrating T lymphocytes in tumor, and reinforces the calreticulin-mediated antitumor immunity through alleviating hypoxia, reducing regulatory T cells, and down-regulating PDL1 expression of tumors. The excellent therapeutic efficiency with complete remission of orthotopic tumors (3/6) and long-term survival of mice (4/6, 42 days) are also achieved. Furthermore, the excellent therapeutic effect of metallo-nanodrugs is also validated in 5 patient-derived organoids, and hence can provide a marvelous systemic chemo-immunotherapy strategy for enhancing HCC treatment.

Advances in Nanogels for Topical Drug Delivery in Ocular Diseases

Nanotechnology has accelerated the development of the pharmaceutical and medical technology fields, and nanogels for ocular applications have proven to be a promising therapeutic strategy. Traditional ocular preparations are restricted by the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye, resulting in a short retention time and low drug bioavailability, which is a significant challenge for physicians, patients, and pharmacists. Nanogels, however, have the ability to encapsulate drugs within three-dimensional crosslinked polymeric networks and, through specific structural designs and distinct methods of preparation, achieve the controlled and sustained delivery of loaded drugs, increasing patient compliance and therapeutic efficiency. In addition, nanogels have higher drug-loading capacity and biocompatibility than other nanocarriers. In this review, the main focus is on the applications of nanogels for ocular diseases, whose preparations and stimuli-responsive behaviors are briefly described. The current comprehension of topical drug delivery will be improved by focusing on the advances of nanogels in typical ocular diseases, including glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, and bacterial keratitis, as well as related drug-loaded contact lenses and natural active substances.

Controlled Release of DNA Binding Anticancer Drugs from Gold Nanoparticles with Near-Infrared Radiation

Traditional chemotherapies target rapidly developing cells in the human body resulting in harsh side effects including fatigue, immune system suppression, and nausea, among others. Delivery systems to focus the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to the diseased tissue can diminish the negative side effects while improving treatment outcomes. Gold nanoparticles (AuNP) offer many unique advantages as drug delivery vehicles, including being biologically inert, easily adaptable to various shapes and sizes, able to create a strong Au-thiol bond, and able to generate heat upon the absorption of near-infrared light. To this end, a AuNP delivery vehicle was engineered to load and release two DNA binding anti-cancer drugs, mithramycin and doxorubicin, in a controlled fashion. The drugs were loaded onto the surface of the AuNP with temperature sensitive linkages. The amount of heat generated, and subsequent release of the drugs was controlled by the irradiation time with a near-infrared laser. By modulating the linkage used to load the drugs three different release profiles were able to be achieved, indicating the feasibility of such a system for combinational therapy requiring sequential release of APIs.

Recent applications of phase-change materials in tumor therapy and theranostics

Phase-change materials (PCMs) are a type of special material which can store and release a large amount of thermal energy without any significant temperature change. They are emerging in recent years as a promising functional material in tumor therapy and theranostics due to their accurate responses to the temperature variations, biocompatibility and low toxicity. In this review, we will introduce the main types of PCMs and their desirable physiochemical properties for biomedical applications, and highlight the recent progress of PCM's applications in the modulated release of antitumor drugs, with special attentions paid to various ways to initiate temperature-dependent phase change, the concomitant thermal therapy and its combination with or activation of other therapies, particularly unconventional therapies. We will also summarize PCM's recent applications in tumor theranostics, where both drugs and imaging probes are delivered by PCMs for controlled drug release and imaging-guided therapy. Finally, the future perspectives and potential limitations of harnessing PCMs in tumor therapy will be discussed.

Combining nanotechnology with monoclonal antibody drugs for rheumatoid arthritis treatments

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic immune disease characterized by synovial inflammation. Patients with RA commonly experience significant damage to their hand and foot joints, which can lead to joint deformities and even disability. Traditional treatments have several clinical drawbacks, including unclear pharmacological mechanisms and serious side effects. However, the emergence of antibody drugs offers a promising approach to overcome these limitations by specifically targeting interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and other cytokines that are closely related to the onset of RA. This approach reduces the incidence of adverse effects and contributes to significant therapeutic outcomes. Furthermore, combining these antibody drugs with drug delivery nanosystems (DDSs) can improve their tissue accumulation and bioavailability.Herein, we provide a summary of the pathogenesis of RA, the available antibody drugs and DDSs that improve the efficacy of these drugs. However, several challenges need to be addressed in their clinical applications, including patient compliance, stability, immunogenicity, immunosupression, target and synergistic effects. We propose strategies to overcome these limitations. In summary, we are optimistic about the prospects of treating RA with antibody drugs, given their specific targeting mechanisms and the potential benefits of combining them with DDSs.

Bacterial Membrane Vesicles as Smart Drug Delivery and Carrier Systems: A New Nanosystems Tool for Current Anticancer and Antimicrobial Therapy

Bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) are known to be critical communication tools in several pathophysiological processes between bacteria and host cells. Given this situation, BMVs for transporting and delivering exogenous therapeutic cargoes have been inspiring as promising platforms for developing smart drug delivery systems (SDDSs). In the first section of this review paper, starting with an introduction to pharmaceutical technology and nanotechnology, we delve into the design and classification of SDDSs. We discuss the characteristics of BMVs including their size, shape, charge, effective production and purification techniques, and the different methods used for cargo loading and drug encapsulation. We also shed light on the drug release mechanism, the design of BMVs as smart carriers, and recent remarkable findings on the potential of BMVs for anticancer and antimicrobial therapy. Furthermore, this review covers the safety of BMVs and the challenges that need to be overcome for clinical use. Finally, we discuss the recent advancements and prospects for BMVs as SDDSs and highlight their potential in revolutionizing the fields of nanomedicine and drug delivery. In conclusion, this review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art field of BMVs as SDDSs, encompassing their design, composition, fabrication, purification, and characterization, as well as the various strategies used for targeted delivery. Considering this information, the aim of this review is to provide researchers in the field with a comprehensive understanding of the current state of BMVs as SDDSs, enabling them to identify critical gaps and formulate new hypotheses to accelerate the progress of the field.

Cucurbit[7]uril-Based Supramolecular DNA Nanogel for Targeted Codelivery of Chemo/Photodynamic Drugs

Nanodrug delivery systems for the delivery of combination therapeutics have shown their exceptionally potential clinical application by facilitating better synergistic anticancer effects. Herein, we developed a universal strategy to fabricate supramolecular DNA nanogels from DNA tetrahedron skeleton and cucurbit[7]uril-based host-guest interaction for codelivery the chemo and photodynamic therapy drugs. The constructed supramolecular DNA nanogels showed the size tunability, host-guest competition and DNA enzyme responsibility. The cell uptake and MTT experiments demonstrated that the nanogel has excellent biocompatibility and specificity, and achieved the enrichment and slow release of drug in cells. Finally, the combined chemo/photodynamic therapy was realized by coloading doxorubicin hydrochloride and methylene blue. It was proven to be a better stragety to promote apoptosis of cancer cells compared to single chemotherapy or photodynamic therapy. These results suggest that our proposed supramolecular nanogels have provided an effective nanoplatform for drug delivery in the combinational therapy for cancer.

Chemical, physical, and biological stimuli-responsive nanogels for biomedical applications (mechanisms, concepts, and advancements): A review

The development of nanotechnology has influenced the advancements in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. The design and formulation of stimuli-responsive nano-drug delivery systems, also called smart drug delivery systems, have attracted significant research worldwide and have been seen as a breakthrough in nanomedicines. The ability of these nanocarriers to respond to external and internal stimuli, such as pH, temperature, redox, electric and magnetic fields, enzymes, etc., has allowed them to deliver the cargo at targeted sites in a controlled fashion. The targeted drug delivery systems limit the harmful side effects on healthy tissue by toxic drugs and furnish spatial and temporal control drug delivery, improved patient compliance, and treatment efficiency. The polymeric nanogels (hydrogel nanoparticles) with stimuli-responsive characteristics have shown great potential in various biomedical, tissue engineering, and pharmaceutical fields. It is primarily because of their small size, biocompatibility, biodegradability, stimuli-triggered drug deliverability, high payload capacity, and tailored functionality. This comprehensive review deals distinctively with polymeric nanogels, their chemical, physical, and biological stimuli, the concepts of nanogels response to different stimuli, and recent advancements. This document will further improve the current understanding of stimuli-responsive materials and drug delivery systems and assist in exploring advanced potential applications of these intelligent materials.

CuAAC ensembled 1,2,3-triazole linked nanogels for targeted drug delivery: a review

Copper(i) catalyzed alkyne azide cycloaddition (CuAAC), the quintessential example of 'click chemistry', provides an adaptable and adequate platform for the synthesis of nanogels for sustained drug release at targeted sites because of their better biocompatibility. The coupling of drugs, carried out via various synthetic routes including CuAAC, into long-chain polymeric forms like nanogels has exhibited considerable assurance in therapeutic advancements and intracellular drug delivery due to the progression of water solubility, evacuation of precocious drug release, and improved upthrust of the pharmacokinetics of the nanogels, thereby rendering them as better and efficient drug carriers. The inefficiency of drug transmission to the target areas due to the resistance of complex biological barriers in vivo is a major hurdle that impedes the therapeutic translation of nanogels. This review compiles the data of nanogels synthesized specifically via CuAAC 'click' methodology, as scaffolds for targeted drug delivery and their assimilation into nanomedicine. In addition, it elaborates the ability of CuAAC to graft specific moieties and conjugating biomolecules like proteins and growth factors, onto orthogonally functionalized polymer chains with various chemical groups resulting in nanogels that are not only more appealing but also more effective at delivering drugs, thereby enhancing their site-specific target approach and initiating selective therapies.

Temperature-Dependent Nanogel for Pesticide Smart Delivery with Improved Foliar Dispersion and Bioactivity for Efficient Control of Multiple Pests

The use of nanomaterials and nanotechnology to construct a smart pesticide delivery system with target-oriented and controlled-release functions is important to increase the effective utilization rate and minimize environmental residue pollution. A temperature-dependent delivery system can modulate the release of pesticide with temperature to improve the efficacy and precision targeting. A series of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM)-based nanogels with high deformability and tunable structure were successfully constructed for smart pesticide delivery and effective pest control. A lambda-cyhalothrin (LC)-loaded Pickering emulsion (LC@TNPE) with a stable gel-like network structure was further formed by the temperature-dependent nanogel to encapsule the pesticide. The foliar wettability, photostability, and controlled-release property of LC@TNPE were effectively enhanced compared to the commercial formulation because of the encapsulation and stabilization of nanogel. The release rate of LC positively correlated with temperature changes and thereby adapted to the trend of pest population increase at higher temperature. The LC@TNPE displayed improved control efficacy on multiple target pests including Plutella xylostella, Aphis gossypii, and Pieris rapae compared with the commercial suspension concentrate and microcapsule suspension, and it showed marked efficacy to control Pieris rapae for an extended duration even at a 40% reduced dosage. Furthermore, the safety was evaluated systematically on cells in vitro and with a nontarget organism. Studies confirmed that the system was relatively safe for HepG2 cells and aquatic organism zebrafish. This research provides an insight into creating an efficient and environmentally friendly pesticide nanoformulation for sustainable agriculture production.

Biomedicine Innovations and Its Nanohydrogel Classifications

As one of the most cutting-edge and promising polymer crosslinked network nanoparticle systems. Polymer nano-sized hydrogels (nanogels) have been a hot topic in the biomedical field over the last few decades. Due to their unique characteristics, which include their relatively high drug encapsulation efficiency, ease of preparation, high tunability, low toxicity, high stability in serum and responsive behavior to a range of stimuli to facilitate drug release. Nanogels are thought to be the next generation of drug delivery systems that can completely change the way that drug delivery systems have an impact on patients' lives. Nanogels have demonstrated significant potential in a variety of fields, including chemotherapy, diagnosis, organ targeting, and delivery of bioactive molecules of different dimensions. However, the lack of substantial clinical data from nanogels becomes one of the major barriers to translating the nanogel concept into a practical therapeutic application for many disease conditions. In addition, nanogel safety profiles have been the major concern that hinders it advancement to the clinical trial phase. This review aims to emphasize the unique properties of nanogels as delivery systems for a variety of bioactive molecules over other nano-delivery systems. Also, this review attempts to give insight into the recent progress in nanogels as a carrier in the field of nanomedicine to overcome complex biological barriers. Relevant scientific data and clinical rationale for the development and the potential use of nanogel as a carrier for targeted therapeutic interventions are discussed. Finally, the concluding points of this review highlight the importance of understanding the long-term toxicity profile of nanogel within the biological system to fully understand their biocompatibility.

pH-responsive nanoprodrugs combining a Src inhibitor and chemotherapy to potentiate antitumor immunity via pyroptosis in head and neck cancer

As the prominent feature of the development and progression of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is immunosuppression, therapeutic strategies to restore antitumor immunity have shown promising prospects. The efficacy of chemotherapy, a mainstay in HNSCC treatment, is exemplified by cytotoxic effects as well as immunostimulation, whereas compensatory activation of prosurvival signals in tumor tissues may compromise its efficacy. Aberrant activation of Src is present in many human malignancies including HNSCC, and is implicated in chemotherapy resistance. In this regard, tumor-microenvironment-responsive prodrug nanomicelles (PDO NPs) are rationally designed to combine chemotherapy (oxaliplatin, OXA) and Src inhibitors (dasatinib, DAS) for HNSCC therapy. PDO NPs are constructed by chemically modifying small-molecule prodrugs (DAS-OXA) loaded in block copolymer iPDPA with pH-triggered transforming capability. PDO NPs can controllably release drugs in response to tumor acidity, thus increasing tumor accumulation and therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, PDO NPs can elicit pyroptosis of tumor cells and induce T-cell-mediated antitumor immunity in murine HNSCC models. In summary, nanoprodrugs integrating Src inhibitors enhance the immunological effects of chemotherapy and provide insight into promising approaches for augmenting immunochemotherapy for HNSCC. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this study, pH-responsive nanomicelles (PDO NPs) were constructed by loading a small molecular prodrug synthesized by the Src inhibitor dasatinib and the chemotherapy drug oxaliplatin into the amphiphilic block copolymer iPDPA to improve the immunological effects of chemotherapy for HNSCC. These nanomicelles can efficiently accumulate in tumor cells and achieve pH-responsive drug release. The PDO NPs can induce pyroptosis of tumor cells and potentiate antitumor immunity in subcutaneous and syngenetic orthotopic HNSCC mouse models, which may present a promising strategy to enhance immunochemotherapy for HNSCC.