Engineered bacteria combined with doxorubicin nanoparticles suppress angiogenesis and metastasis in murine melanoma models

Living material-derived intelligent micro/nanorobots

Living materials, which include various types of cells, organelles, and biological components from animals, plants, and microorganisms, have become central to recent investigations in micro and nanorobotics. Living material-derived intelligent micro/nanorobots (LMNRs) are self-propelled devices that combine living materials with synthetic materials. By harnessing energy from external physical fields or biological sources, LMNRs can move autonomously and perform various biomedical functions, such as drug delivery, crossing biological barriers, medical imaging, and disease treatment. This review, from a biomimetic strategy perspective, summarized the latest advances in the design and biomedical applications of LMNRs. It provided a comprehensive overview of the living materials used to construct LMNRs, including mammalian cells, plants, and microorganisms while highlighting their biological properties and functions. Lastly, the review discussed the major challenges in this field and offered suggestions for future research that may help facilitate the clinical application of LMNRs in the near future.

Bioengineered therapeutic systems for improving antitumor immunity

Immunotherapy, a monumental advancement in antitumor therapy, still yields limited clinical benefits owing to its unguaranteed efficacy and safety. Therapeutic systems derived from cellular, bacterial and viral sources possess inherent properties that are conducive to antitumor immunotherapy. However, crude biomimetic systems have restricted functionality and may produce undesired toxicity. With advances in biotechnology, various toolkits are available to add or subtract certain properties of living organisms to create flexible therapeutic platforms. This review elaborates on the creation of bioengineered systems, via gene editing, synthetic biology and surface engineering, to enhance immunotherapy. The modifying strategies of the systems are discussed, including equipment for navigation and recognition systems to improve therapeutic precision, the introduction of controllable components to control the duration and intensity of treatment, the addition of immunomodulatory components to amplify immune activation, and the removal of toxicity factors to ensure biosafety. Finally, we summarize the advantages of bioengineered immunotherapeutic systems and possible directions for their clinical translation.

Advances in Microbiome-Based Therapeutics for Dermatological Disorders: Current Insights and Future Directions

The human skin hosts an estimated 1000 bacterial species that are essential for maintaining skin health. Extensive clinical and preclinical studies have established the significant role of the skin microbiome in dermatological disorders such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, diabetic foot ulcers, hidradenitis suppurativa and skin cancers. In these conditions, the skin microbiome is not only altered but, in some cases, implicated in disease pathophysiology. Microbiome-based therapies (MBTs) represent an emerging category of live biotherapeutic products with tremendous potential as a novel intervention platform for skin diseases. Beyond using established wild-type strains native to the skin, these therapies can be enhanced to express targeted therapeutic molecules, offering more tailored treatment approaches. This review explores the role of the skin microbiome in various common skin disorders, with a particular focus on the development and therapeutic potential of MBTs for treating these conditions.

Bacterial live therapeutics for human diseases

The genomic revolution has fueled rapid progress in synthetic and systems biology, opening up new possibilities for using live biotherapeutic products (LBP) to treat, attenuate or prevent human diseases. Among LBP, bacteria-based therapies are particularly promising due to their ability to colonize diverse human tissues, modulate the immune system and secrete or deliver complex biological products. These bacterial LBP include engineered pathogenic species designed to target specific diseases, and microbiota species that promote microbial balance and immune system homeostasis, either through local administration or the gut-body axes. This review focuses on recent advancements in preclinical and clinical trials of bacteria-based LBP, highlighting both on-site and long-reaching strategies.

Recent Advances in Bacterium-Based Therapeutic Modalities for Melanoma Treatment

Melanoma is one of the most severe skin cancer indications with rapid progression and a high risk of metastasis. However, despite the accumulated advances in melanoma treatment including adjuvant radiation, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, the overall melanoma treatment efficacy in the clinics is still not satisfactory. Interestingly, bacterial therapeutics have demonstrated unique properties for tumor-related therapeutic applications, such as tumor-targeted motility, tailorable cytotoxicity, and immunomodulatory capacity of the tumor microenvironment, which have emerged as a promising platform for melanoma therapy. Indeed, the recent advances in genetic engineering and nanotechnologies have boosted the application potential of bacterium-based therapeutics for treating melanoma by further enhancing their tumor-homing, cell-killing, drug delivery, and immunostimulatory capacities. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the state-of-the-art bacterium-based anti-melanoma modalities, which are categorized according to their unique functional merits, including tumor-specific cytotoxins, tumor-targeted drug delivery platforms, and immune-stimulatory agents. Furthermore, a perspective is provided discussing the potential challenges and breakthroughs in this area. The insights in this review may facilitate the development of more advanced bacterium-based therapeutic modalities for improved melanoma treatment efficacy.

Path to bacteriotherapy: From bacterial engineering to therapeutic perspectives

The major reason for the failure of conventional therapies is the heterogeneity and complexity of tumor microenvironments (TMEs). Many malignant tumors reprogram their surface antigens to evade the immune surveillance, leading to reduced antigen-presenting cells and hindered T-cell activation. Bacteria-mediated cancer immunotherapy has been extensively investigated in recent years. Scientists have ingeniously modified bacteria using synthetic biology and nanotechnology to enhance their biosafety with high tumor specificity, resulting in robust anticancer immune responses. To enhance the antitumor efficacy, therapeutic proteins, cytokines, nanoparticles, and chemotherapeutic drugs have been efficiently delivered using engineered bacteria. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of oncolytic bacterial therapies, covering bacterial design and the intricate interactions within TMEs. Additionally, it offers an in-depth comparison of the current techniques used for bacterial modification, both internally and externally, to maximize their therapeutic effectiveness. Finally, we outlined the challenges and opportunities ahead in the clinical application of oncolytic bacterial therapies.

Advances in Nanomaterials for Immunotherapeutic Improvement of Cancer Chemotherapy

Immuno-stimulative effect of chemotherapy (ISECT) is recognized as a potential alternative to conventional immunotherapies, however, the clinical application is constrained by its inefficiency. Metronomic chemotherapy, though designed to overcome these limitations, offers inconsistent results, with effectiveness varying based on cancer types, stages, and patient-specific factors. In parallel, a wealth of preclinical nanomaterials holds considerable promise for ISECT improvement by modulating the cancer-immunity cycle. In the area of biomedical nanomaterials, current literature reviews mainly concentrate on a specific category of nanomaterials and nanotechnological perspectives, while two essential issues are still lacking, i.e., a comprehensive analysis addressing the causes for ISECT inefficiency and a thorough summary elaborating the nanomaterials for ISECT improvement. This review thus aims to fill these gaps and catalyze further development in this field. For the first time, this review comprehensively discusses the causes of ISECT inefficiency. It then meticulously categorizes six types of nanomaterials for improving ISECT. Subsequently, practical strategies are further proposed for addressing inefficient ISECT, along with a detailed discussion on exemplary nanomedicines. Finally, this review provides insights into the challenges and perspectives for improving chemo-immunotherapy by innovations in nanomaterials.

Harnessing and Mimicking Bacterial Features to Combat Cancer: From Living Entities to Artificial Mimicking Systems

Bacterial-derived micro-/nanomedicine has garnered considerable attention in anticancer therapy, owing to the unique natural features of bacteria, including specific targeting ability, immunogenic benefits, physicochemical modifiability, and biotechnological editability. Besides, bacterial components have also been explored as promising drug delivery vehicles. Harnessing these bacterial features, cutting-edge physicochemical and biotechnologies have been applied to attenuated tumor-targeting bacteria with unique properties or functions for potent and effective cancer treatment, including strategies of gene-editing and genetic circuits. Further, the advent of bacteria-inspired micro-/nanorobots and mimicking artificial systems has furnished fresh perspectives for formulating strategies for developing highly efficient drug delivery systems. Focusing on the unique natural features and advantages of bacteria, this review delves into advances in bacteria-derived drug delivery systems for anticancer treatment in recent years, which has experienced a process from living entities to artificial mimicking systems. Meanwhile, a summary of relative clinical trials is provided and primary challenges impeding their clinical application are discussed. Furthermore, future directions are suggested for bacteria-derived systems to combat cancer.

Multifunctional hydrogels based on photothermal therapy: A prospective platform for the postoperative management of melanoma

Preventing the recurrence of melanoma after surgery and accelerating wound healing are among the most challenging aspects of melanoma management. Photothermal therapy has been widely used to treat tumors and bacterial infections and promote wound healing. Owing to its efficacy and specificity, it may be used for postoperative management of tumors. However, its use is limited by the uncontrollable distribution of photosensitizers and the likelihood of damage to the surrounding normal tissue. Hydrogels provide a moist environment with strong biocompatibility and adhesion for wound healing owing to their highly hydrophilic three-dimensional network structure. In addition, these materials serve as excellent drug carriers for tumor treatment and wound healing. It is possible to combine the advantages of both of these agents through different loading modalities to provide a powerful platform for the prevention of tumor recurrence and wound healing. This review summarizes the design strategies, research progress and mechanism of action of hydrogels used in photothermal therapy and discusses their role in preventing tumor recurrence and accelerating wound healing. These findings provide valuable insights into the postoperative management of melanoma and may guide the development of promising multifunctional hydrogels for photothermal therapy.

Engineering Microorganisms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy presents a promising approach to fight against cancer by utilizing the immune system. Recently, engineered microorganisms have emerged as a potential strategy in cancer immunotherapy. These microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, can be designed and modified using synthetic biology and genetic engineering techniques to target cancer cells and modulate the immune system. This review delves into various microorganism-based therapies for cancer immunotherapy, encompassing strategies for enhancing efficacy while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. The development of these therapies holds immense potential in offering innovative personalized treatments for cancer.

Nanoparticle/Engineered Bacteria Based Triple-Strategy Delivery System for Enhanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cancer Therapy

Background

New treatment modalities for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are desperately critically needed, given the lack of specificity, severe side effects, and drug resistance with single chemotherapy. Engineered bacteria can target and accumulate in tumor tissues, induce an immune response, and act as drug delivery vehicles. However, conventional bacterial therapy has limitations, such as drug loading capacity and difficult cargo release, resulting in inadequate therapeutic outcomes. Synthetic biotechnology can enhance the precision and efficacy of bacteria-based delivery systems. This enables the selective release of therapeutic payloads in vivo.

Methods

In this study, we constructed a non-pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) with a synchronized lysis circuit as both a drug/gene delivery vehicle and an in-situ (hepatitis B surface antigen) Ag (ASEc) producer. Polyethylene glycol (CHO-PEG2000-CHO)-poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI25k)-citraconic anhydride (CA)-doxorubicin (DOX) nanoparticles loaded with plasmid encoded human sulfatase 1 (hsulf-1) enzyme (PNPs) were anchored on the surface of ASEc (ASEc@PNPs). The composites were synthesized and characterized. The in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor effect of ASEc@PNPs was tested in HepG2 cell lines and a mouse subcutaneous tumor model.

Results

The results demonstrated that upon intravenous injection into tumor-bearing mice, ASEc can actively target and colonise tumor sites. The lytic genes to achieve blast and concentrated release of Ag significantly increased cytokine secretion and the intratumoral infiltration of CD4/CD8+T cells, initiated a specific immune response. Simultaneously, the PNPs system releases hsulf-1 and DOX into the tumor cell resulting in rapid tumor regression and metastasis prevention.

Conclusion

The novel drug delivery system significantly suppressed HCC in vivo with reduced side effects, indicating a potential strategy for clinical HCC therapy.

Recent advances in single-cell engineered live biotherapeutic products research for skin repair and disease treatment

The human microbiome has emerged as a key player in maintaining skin health, and dysbiosis has been linked to various skin disorders. Amidst growing concerns regarding the side effects of antibiotic treatments, the potential of live biotherapeutic products (LBPs) in restoring a healthy microbiome has garnered significant attention. This review aims to evaluate the current state of the art of the genetically or metabolically engineered LBPs, termed single-cell engineered LBPs (eLBPs), for skin repair and disease treatment. While some studies demonstrate promising outcomes, the translation of eLBPs into clinical applications remains a significant hurdle. Substantial concerns arise regarding the practical implementation and scalability of eLBPs, despite the evident potential they hold in targeting specific cells and delivering therapeutic agents. This review underscores the need for further research, robust clinical trials, and the exploration of current advances in eLBP-based bioengineered bacterial chassis and new outlooks to substantiate the viability and effectiveness of eLBPs as a transformative approach in skin repair and disease intervention.

Advances in Targeting Drug Biological Carriers for Enhancing Tumor Therapy Efficacy

Chemotherapy drugs continue to be the main component of oncology treatment research and have been proven to be the main treatment modality in tumor therapy. However, the poor delivery efficiency of cancer therapeutic drugs and their potential off-target toxicity significantly limit their effectiveness and extensive application. The recent integration of biological carriers and functional agents is expected to camouflage synthetic biomimetic nanoparticles for targeted delivery. The promising candidates, including but not limited to red blood cells and their membranes, platelets, tumor cell membrane, bacteria, immune cell membrane, and hybrid membrane are typical representatives of biological carriers because of their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. Biological carriers are widely used to deliver chemotherapy drugs to improve the effectiveness of drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy in vivo, and tremendous progress is made in this field. This review summarizes recent developments in biological vectors as targeted drug delivery systems based on microenvironmental stimuli-responsive release, thus highlighting the potential applications of target drug biological carriers. The review also discusses the possibility of clinical translation, as well as the exploitation trend of these target drug biological carriers.

Advances in anti-tumor based on various anaerobic bacteria and their derivatives as drug vehicles

Cancer therapies, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are often unsatisfactory due to several limitations, including drug resistance, inability to cross biological barriers, and toxic side effects on the body. These drawbacks underscore the need for alternative treatments that can overcome these challenges and provide more effective and safer options for cancer patients. In recent years, the use of live bacteria, engineered bacteria, or bacterial derivatives to deliver antitumor drugs to specific tumor sites for controlled release has emerged as a promising therapeutic tool. This approach offers several advantages over traditional cancer therapies, including targeted drug delivery and reduced toxicity to healthy tissues. Ongoing research in this field holds great potential for further developing more efficient and personalized cancer therapies, such as E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria, and bacterial derivatives like outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), which can serve as vehicles for drugs, therapeutic proteins, or antigens. In this review, we describe the advances, challenges, and future directions of research on using live bacteria or OMVs as carriers or components derived from bacteria of delivery systems for cancer therapy.