Lipid nanoparticles strategies to modify pharmacokinetics of central nervous system targeting drugs: Crossing or circumventing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to manage neurological disorders

Challenges and material innovations in drug delivery to central nervous system tumors

Central nervous system (CNS) tumors, encompassing a diverse array of neoplasms in the brain and spinal cord, pose significant therapeutic challenges due to their intricate anatomy and the protective presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The primary treatment obstacle is the effective delivery of therapeutics to the tumor site, which is hindered by multiple physiological, biological, and technical barriers, including the BBB. This comprehensive review highlights recent advancements in material science and nanotechnology aimed at surmounting these delivery challenges, with a focus on the development and application of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials emerge as potent tools in designing innovative drug delivery systems that demonstrate the potential to overcome the limitations posed by CNS tumors. The review delves into various strategies, including the use of lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, all of which are engineered to enhance drug stability, BBB penetration, and targeted tumor delivery. Additionally, this review highlights the burgeoning role of theranostic nanoparticles, integrating therapeutic and diagnostic functionalities to optimize treatment efficacy. The exploration extends to biocompatible materials like biodegradable polymers, liposomes, and advanced material-integrated delivery systems such as implantable drug-eluting devices and microfabricated devices. Despite promising preclinical results, the translation of these material-based strategies into clinical practice necessitates further research and optimization.

Recent advances in biomimetic nanodelivery systems for the treatment of depression

Depression and cognitive disorders remain major challenges in healthcare, with conventional treatments often facing limitations such as slow onset, side effects, and poor drug delivery to the brain. Biomimetic nanodelivery systems, including nanozymes, cell membrane-based systems, and exosomes, have emerged as promising solutions to these issues. These systems leverage natural biological processes to enhance drug targeting, improve bioavailability, and regulate complex biological pathways. Nanoenzymes, with their catalytic properties, offer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits, while cell membranes and exosomes provide efficient targeting and immune evasion. However, challenges remain, including the immaturity of large-scale production techniques, stability concerns, and incomplete understanding of their mechanisms of action. Moreover, the long-term safety, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of these systems require further investigation. Despite these obstacles, the potential of biomimetic nanodelivery systems to revolutionize depression treatment is significant. Future research should focus on optimizing their preparation, improving drug targeting and release, and ensuring clinical safety. Multidisciplinary collaboration will be essential for advancing these systems from the laboratory to clinical practice, offering new therapeutic avenues for depression and other neurological disorders.

Brain Delivery Strategies for Biomacromolecular Drugs: Intranasal Administration

Macromolecular Drugs (including monoclonal antibodies, recombinant proteins, and nucleic acid therapies) have become a cornerstone strategy for intervening in complex pathological mechanisms such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, and genetic disorders due to their high specificity for disease targets and low off-target toxicity. However, compared to traditional small-molecule drugs, the high molecular weight (>10 kDa) and structural complexity of macromolecular drugs result in extremely low transmembrane permeability. This is particularly challenging in the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, where the blood-brain barrier (BBB) imposes stringent selectivity, further limiting drug delivery efficiency. This review focuses on the breakthrough strategy of nose-to-brain (NtB) drug delivery. On one hand, the NtB pathway bypasses the BBB, enabling direct CNS drug delivery. On the other hand, nanocarrier technology can synergistically achieve systemic delivery and brain-targeted transport. Based on the latest research advances, this article systematically examines the feasibility of delivering macromolecular drugs via NtB administration. We comprehensively summarize relevant delivery carriers and discuss the potential advantages of intranasal-brain delivery for CNS disease treatment. Notably, while significant progress has been made in this field, further exploration is still needed regarding the mechanisms of NtB delivery and challenges in clinical translation.

Advancing Brain Targeting: Cost-Effective Surface-Modified Nanoparticles for Faster Market Entry

Background/Objectives: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a major obstacle to delivering therapeutic agents to the central nervous system (CNS), driving the need for innovative drug delivery strategies. Among these, nanoparticles (NPs) have gained attention due to their ability to enhance drug transport, improve bioavailability, and enable targeted delivery. Methods: This paper explores various surface modification strategies employed to optimize NP-mediated drug delivery across the BBB. Specifically, the functionalization of NPs with ligands such as transferrin (Tf), lactoferrin (Lf), protamine, and insulin is discussed, each demonstrating unique mechanisms for enhancing brain-targeting efficiency. In addition, this work provides a comprehensive overview of recent scientific advancements and market strategies aimed at accelerating the adoption of low-cost, surface-modified nanoparticles, ultimately improving patient access to effective CNS treatments. Conclusions: Preclinical and in vitro studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these modifications in increasing drug retention and bioavailability in brain tissues. Additionally, while ligand-conjugated NPs hold significant promise for neuropharmacology, their clinical translation is often hindered by regulatory and economic constraints. Lengthy approval processes can slow market entry, but cost-benefit analyses indicate that surface-modified NPs remain financially viable, particularly as scalable manufacturing techniques and some ligands are cost-efficient.

Quinoline Quest: Kynurenic Acid Strategies for Next-Generation Therapeutics via Rational Drug Design

BACKGROUND

Quinoline-derived metabolites exhibit notable chemical complexity. What causes minor structural alterations to induce significant changes in disease outcomes? Historically, eclipsed by more straightforward scaffolds, these chemicals serve as a dynamic hub in tryptophan metabolism, linking immunomodulation, excitotoxicity, and cancer. However, many of these compounds struggle to cross the blood-brain barrier, and we still do not fully understand how certain structural changes affect their bioavailability or off-target effects. Thus, contemporary research highlights halogenation, esterification, and computational modeling to enhance structure-activity relationships.

SUMMARY

This narrative review emphasizes the integration of rational drug design, multi-target ligands, and prodrug methods in enhancing quinoline scaffolds. We explore each molecule's therapeutic promise, refine each scaffold's design, and develop each derivative to maximize clinical utility. Translating these laboratory findings into clinical practice, however, remains a formidable challenge.

CONCLUSIONS

Through the synthesis of findings regarding NMDA receptor antagonism, improved oral bioavailability, and reduced metabolic instability, we demonstrate how single-site changes might modulate excitotoxicity and immunological signaling. Advancing quinoline-based medicines will yield significant advancements in neurology, psychiatry, and oncology. This enlarged framework fosters collaborative discovery, engages various audiences, and advances the field towards next-generation disease-modifying therapies. Robust preclinical validation, patient classification, and comprehensive toxicity evaluations are crucial stages for achieving these extensive endeavors and fostering future therapeutic discoveries globally.

Celery seed derived reconstituted lipid nanoparticles as an innate neuron-targeted neuroprotective nanomedicine for ischemic stroke treatment

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke (IS) is the leading cause of worldwide death while the discovery and effective delivery of neuroprotective agents for satisfied IS treatment is still challenging.

RESULTS

In this study, we discover that celery seed (CS) derived reconstituted lipid nanoparticles (CS-rLNPs) can effectively penetrate across blood-brain barrier (BBB) with increased distribution to the brain. Especially, CS-rLNPs show innate neuron-targeting ability to primarily bind to neuron in the cerebral ischemic area, which is not reported by any parallel studies. Moreover, CS-rLNPs are found to exert therapeutic effects on IS, which effectively restore the function of model mice. Further studies reveal that the therapeutic effects are realized through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB p65 pathway regulated anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, CS-rLNPs can serve as a neuron-targeted neuroprotective nanomedicine for IS treatment.

Melatonin and the nervous system: nanomedicine perspectives

The mechanism of action of melatonin on the nervous system, sleep, cognitive deficits, and aging is not fully understood. Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are one of the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide. Sleeping and cognitive impairments also represent common and serious public health problems, particularly deteriorating with the aging process. Melatonin, as a neuromodulatory hormone, regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle, with functions extending to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-aging properties. However, melatonin is a hydrophobic compound with relatively low water solubility and a short half-life. While melatonin can cross the blood-brain barrier, exogenous melatonin administered orally or intravenously has poor bioavailability, undergoes rapid metabolism in the circulation, and shows limited brain accumulation, ultimately compromising its therapeutic efficacy. In recent years, the convergence of melatonin research with nanomedicine ensures safe therapeutic uses, limited drug degradation, and perspectives for targeted drug delivery to the central nervous system. Here we outline the promising neurotherapeutic properties of nanomaterials as carriers loaded with melatonin drug alone or in combinations with other active molecules.

Neuroprotective effects of Saxagliptin in traumatic brain injury: ameliorating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a significant global health issue characterized by disruptions in normal brain function due to external mechanical forces. Saxagliptin, a Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor primarily used for diabetes management, has demonstrated potential anti-inflammatory effects that may offer therapeutic benefits for Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders. Using a network pharmacology approach, we identified Saxagliptin's molecular targets relevant to TBI pathology. Male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to TBI via a weight-drop method and were randomly assigned to one of four groups (n = 10 per group): sham, TBI + vehicle, TBI + Saxagliptin (1 mg/kg/day), and TBI + Saxagliptin (3 mg/kg/day). Neuroprotective effects were assessed through neurobehavioral tests, brain water content measurement, biochemical assays for oxidative stress and inflammatory markers, and histopathological analysis of brain tissue. Network pharmacology identified 49 intersecting targets between Saxagliptin and TBI, with key roles in apoptosis and neuroinflammation pathways. In vivo results revealed that saxagliptin treatment markedly improved neurobehavioral outcomes. Histological analysis showed a decrease in neuronal cell death following Saxagliptin treatment. Biochemical assessments revealed that Saxagliptin mitigated TBI-induced oxidative stress markers, including oxidative DNA damage. Furthermore, Saxagliptin attenuated neuroinflammation, as shown by reduced levels of iNOS, COX-2, IL-6, and TNF-α, and ameliorated blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage. Additionally, Saxagliptin reduced apoptosis by lowering Bax, Caspase 3 levels and increasing Bcl-2 levels. Saxagliptin exhibits notable neuroprotective effects in TBI by mitigating oxidative stress, reducing neuroinflammation, and preventing neuronal apoptosis. These findings suggest that Saxagliptin could be a viable therapeutic agent for improving outcomes in TBI management.

Antibody immunotherapies for personalized opioid addiction treatment

Approved therapies for managing opioid addiction involve intensive treatment regimens which remain both costly and ineffective. As pharmaceutical interventions have achieved variable success treating substance use disorders (SUD), alternative therapeutics must be considered. Antidrug antibodies induced by vaccination or introduced as monoclonal antibody formulations can neutralize or destroy opioids in circulation before they reach their central nervous system targets or act as enzymes to deactivate opioid receptors, preventing the physiologic and psychoactive effects of the substance. A lack of "reward" for those suffering from SUD has been shown to result in cessation of use and promote long-term abstinence. Decreased antibody production costs and the advent of novel gene therapies that stimulate in vivo production of monoclonal antibodies have renewed interest in this strategy. Furthermore, advances in understanding of SUD immunopathogenesis have revealed distinct mechanisms of neuroimmune dysregulation underlying the disorder. Beyond assisting with cessation of drug use, antibody therapies could treat or reverse pathophysiologic hallmarks that contribute to addiction and which could be the cause of chronic cognitive defects resulting from drug use. In this review, we synthesize key current literature regarding the efficacy of immunotherapies in managing opioid addiction and SUD. We will explore the neuropharmacology underlying these treatments by relating evidence from studies on the use of antibody therapeutics to counteract various drug behaviors and by drawing parallels to the similar immunopathology observed in neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, we will discuss the implications of novel immunization technologies and the application of computational methods in developing personalized addiction treatments. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Significant new evidence contributing to our understanding of substance use disorders has recently emerged leading to a paradigm shift concerning the role of immunology in the neuropathogenesis of opioid use disorder. Concurrently, immunotherapeutic technologies such as antibody therapeutics have advanced the capabilities regarding applications that take advantage of these key principles. This article reviews key antibody-based treatments being studied and highlights directions for further research that may contribute to the management of opioid use disorder.

Lipid Nanocarriers as Precision Delivery Systems for Brain Tumors

Brain tumors, particularly glioblastomas, represent the most complicated cancers to treat and manage due to their highly invasive nature and the protective barriers of the brain, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The efficacy of currently available treatments, viz., radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, are frequently limited by major side effects, drug resistance, and restricted drug penetration into the brain. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a promising and targeted delivery system for brain tumors. Lipid nanocarriers have gained tremendous attention for brain tumor therapeutics due to multiple drug encapsulation abilities, controlled release, better biocompatibility, and ability to cross the BBB. Herein, a detailed analysis of the design, mechanisms, and therapeutic benefits of LNPs in brain tumor treatment is discussed. Moreover, we also discuss the safety issues and clinical developments of LNPs and their current and future challenges. Further, we also focused on the clinical transformation of LNPs in brain tumor therapy by eliminating side effects and engineering the LNPs to overcome the related biological barriers, which provide personalized, affordable, and low-risk treatment options.

Targeted delivery of napabucasin with radiotherapy improves outcomes in diffuse midline glioma

BACKGROUND

Diffuse midline glioma (DMG) is the most aggressive primary brain tumor in children. All previous studies examining the role of systemic agents have failed to demonstrate a survival benefit; the only standard of care is radiation therapy (RT). Successful implementation of radiosensitization strategies in DMG remains an essential and promising avenue of investigation. We explore the use of Napabucasin, an NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1)-bioactivatable reactive oxygen species (ROS)-inducer, as a potential therapeutic radiosensitizer in DMG.

METHODS

In this study, we conduct in vitro and in vivo assays using patient-derived DMG cultures to elucidate the mechanism of action of Napabucasin and its radiosensitizing properties. As penetration of systemic therapy through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a significant limitation to the success of DMG therapies, we explore focused ultrasound (FUS) and convection-enhanced delivery (CED) to overcome the BBB and maximize therapeutic efficacy.

RESULTS

Napabucasin is a potent ROS-inducer and radiosensitizer in DMG, and treatment-mediated ROS production and cytotoxicity are dependent on NQO1. In subcutaneous xenograft models, combination therapy with RT improves local control. After optimizing targeted drug delivery using CED in an orthotopic mouse model, we establish the novel feasibility and survival benefit of CED of Napabucasin concurrent with RT.

CONCLUSIONS

As nearly all DMG patients will receive RT as part of their treatment course, our validation of the efficacy of radiosensitizing therapy using CED to prolong survival in DMG opens the door for exciting novel studies of alternative radiosensitization strategies in this devastating disease while overcoming limitations of the BBB.

The blood-brain barriers: novel nanocarriers for central nervous system diseases

The central nervous system (CNS) diseases are major contributors to death and disability worldwide. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) often prevents drugs intended for CNS diseases from effectively crossing into the brain parenchyma to deliver their therapeutic effects. The blood-brain barrier is a semi-permeable barrier with high selectivity. The BBB primarily manages the transport of substances between the blood and the CNS. To enhance drug delivery for CNS disease treatment, various brain-based drug delivery strategies overcoming the BBB have been developed. Among them, nanoparticles (NPs) have been emphasized due to their multiple excellent properties. This review starts with an overview of the BBB's anatomical structure and physiological roles, and then explores the mechanisms, both endogenous and exogenous, that facilitate the NP passage across the BBB. The text also delves into how nanoparticles' shape, charge, size, and surface ligands affect their ability to cross the BBB and offers an overview of different nanoparticle classifications. This review concludes with an examination of the current challenges in utilizing nanomaterials for brain drug delivery and discusses corresponding directions for solutions. This review aims to propose innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for CNS diseases and enhance drug design for more effective delivery across the BBB.

Advancing CNS Therapeutics: Enhancing Neurological Disorders with Nanoparticle-Based Gene and Enzyme Replacement Therapies

Given the complexity of the central nervous system (CNS) and the diversity of neurological conditions, the increasing prevalence of neurological disorders poses a significant challenge to modern medicine. These disorders, ranging from neurodegenerative diseases to psychiatric conditions, not only impact individuals but also place a substantial burden on healthcare systems and society. A major obstacle in treating these conditions is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the passage of therapeutic agents to the brain. Nanotechnology, particularly the use of nanoparticles (NPs), offers a promising solution to this challenge. NPs possess unique properties such as small size, large surface area, and modifiable surface characteristics, enabling them to cross the BBB and deliver drugs directly to the affected brain regions. This review focuses on the application of NPs in gene therapy and enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) for neurological disorders. Gene therapy involves altering or manipulating gene expression and can be enhanced by NPs designed to carry various genetic materials. Similarly, NPs can improve the efficacy of ERT for lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) by facilitating enzyme delivery to the brain, overcoming issues like immunogenicity and instability. Taken together, this review explores the potential of NPs in revolutionizing treatment options for neurological disorders, highlighting their advantages and the future directions in this rapidly evolving field.

ROS Regulation in CNS Disorder Therapy: Unveiling the Dual Roles of Nanomedicine

The treatment of brain diseases has always been the focus of attention. Due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), most small molecule drugs are difficult to reach the brain, leading to undesirable therapeutic outcomes. Recently, nanomedicines that can cross the BBB and precisely target lesion sites have emerged as thrilling tools to enhance the early diagnosis and treat various intractable brain disorders. Extensive research has shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in the occurrence and progression of brain diseases, including brain tumors and neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, or traumatic brain injury, making ROS a potential therapeutic target. In this review, on the structure and function of BBB as well as the mechanisms are first elaborated through which nanomedicine traverses it. Then, recent studies on ROS production are summarized through photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), and sonodynamic therapy (SDT) for treating brain tumors, and ROS depletion for treating NDDs. This provides valuable guidance for the future design of ROS-targeted nanomedicines for brain disease treatment. The ongoing challenges and future perspectives in developing nanomedicine-based ROS management for brain diseases are also discussed and outlined.

Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibition as a novel treatment for stroke

The incidence of stroke ranks third among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. It has the characteristics of high morbidity, high disability rate and high recurrence rate. The current risk associated with stroke surgery is exceedingly high. It may potentially outweigh the benefits and fail to ameliorate the cerebral tissue damage following ischemia. Therefore, pharmacological intervention assumes paramount importance. The use of thrombolytic drugs is most common in the treatment of stroke; however, its efficacy is limited due to its time-sensitive nature and propensity for increased bleeding. Over the past few years, the treatment of stroke has witnessed a surge in interest towards neuroprotective drugs that possess the potential to enhance neurological function. The PDE4D gene has been demonstrated to have a positive correlation with the risk of ischemic stroke. Additionally, the utilization of phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors can enhance synaptic plasticity within the neural circuitry, regulate cellular metabolism, and prevent secondary brain injury caused by impaired blood flow. These mechanisms collectively facilitate the recovery of functional neurons, thereby serving as potential therapeutic interventions. Therefore, the comprehensive investigation of phosphodiesterase 4 as an innovative pharmacological target for stroke injury provides valuable insights into the development of therapeutic interventions in stroke treatment. This review is intended for, but not limited to, pharmacological researchers, drug target researchers, neurologists, neuromedical researchers, and behavioral scientists.

Enhanced Osteoporosis Treatment via Nano Drug Coating Encapsulating Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG

Osteoporosis is the most common systemic skeletal disorder, particularly associated with aging and postmenopausal women. With the growing knowledge about the gut-bone axis, the therapeutic strategies for osteoporosis have been shifted toward regulating gut microbiota to promote positive bone metabolism. AlthoughLactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) is widely reported to positively regulate bone metabolism by restoring the dysbiotic microbiome, oral administration is associated with sensitivity to gastric fluid and low bioavailability. Other studies also demonstrated that bisphosphonates ameliorate osteoporosis by directly regulating bone metabolism, especially inhibiting osteoclast activity. However, the side effects caused by bisphosphonate treatment still represent a significant problem. In this study, we assembled alendronate, a clinically used bisphosphonate, with DSPE-phospholipid nanoencapsulation and LGG (ADB), to protect LGG from the acidic environment of the stomach, while simultaneously reducing the gastrointestinal side effects associated with the oral administration of alendronate. We further investigated the potential of these DSPE-phospholipid nanoencapsulated bacteria ADB to repair osteoporotic bone deterioration, and their ability to regulate gut microbiota in vivo, which is strongly associated with the intrinsic environment. Compared with the same dosage of LGG and alendronate alone, ADB positively regulated bone metabolism, and osteoporosis was significantly revised in ovariectomized mice models.

Polymeric Polylactic Acid-Glycolic Acid-Based Nanoparticles Deliver Nintedanib Across the Blood-Brain Barrier to Inhibit Glioblastoma Growth

The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of nintedanib (BIBF) on glioblastoma (GBM) cells and its mechanism of action and to optimize a drug delivery strategy to overcome the limitations posed by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). We analyzed the inhibition of GBM cell lines following BIBF treatment and explored its effect on the autophagy pathway. The cytotoxicity of BIBF was assessed using the CCK-8 assay, and further techniques such as transmission electron microscopy, Western blotting (WB), and flow cytometry were employed to demonstrate that BIBF could block the autophagic pathway by inhibiting the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes, ultimately limiting the proliferation of GBM cells. Molecular docking and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments indicated that BIBF specifically binds to the autophagy-associated protein VPS18, interfering with its function and inhibiting the normal progression of autophagy. However, the application of BIBF in GBM therapy is limited due to restricted drug penetration across the BBB. Therefore, this study utilized poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanocarriers as a drug delivery system to significantly enhance the delivery efficiency of BIBF in vivo. In vitro cellular experiments and in vivo animal model validation demonstrated that PLGA-BIBF NPs effectively overcame the limitations of the BBB, significantly enhanced the antitumor activity of BIBF, and improved therapeutic efficacy in a GBM BALB/c-Nude model. This study demonstrated that BIBF exerted significant inhibitory effects on GBM cells by binding to VPS18 and inhibiting the autophagy pathway. Combined with the PLGA nanocarrier delivery system, the blood-brain barrier permeability and anti-tumor effect of BIBF were significantly enhanced. Targeting the BIBF-VPS18 pathway and optimizing drug delivery through nanotechnology may represent a new strategy for GBM treatment, providing innovative clinical treatment ideas and a theoretical basis for patients with GBM.

Penetratin and Mannose-Functionalized Cannabidiol Lipid Nanoparticles Encapsulating the BDNF Gene Reduce Amyloid-Induced Inflammation

Inflammation is emerging as a critical player in the disease progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by its interaction with amyloid beta plaques in a feed-forward loop. There is also a decline in the nourishment and enriching neurotrophic factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), in the brain. Therefore, supplementing the brain with BDNF by gene delivery and delivering the anti-inflammatory agent, cannabidiol (CBD) in this case, to mitigate inflammation-induced disease cascade offers an attractive treatment strategy. To achieve the brain localization of CBD and pBDNF, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) functionalized with mannose and penetratin were utilized. CBD and pBDNF were successfully encapsulated in the LNPs (more than 80%) with a size less than 180 nm, polydispersity index less than 0.25, and zeta potential of 23 mV. CBD was released from the formulation over a period of a week. The dual-functionalized LNPs demonstrated higher cellular uptake of CBD and expressed a significantly higher amount of BDNF (p-value <0.05) after transfection than their nonmodified counterparts in four brain cell lines, i.e., brain endothelial cells (b.END3), immortalized microglia cells (IMGs), primary astrocytes, and primary neurons. Similarly, the permeation of CBD through the dual-modified LNPs across the in vitro coculture blood-brain barrier model was significantly higher (p-value <0.05) compared to free CBD or nonfunctionalized nanoparticles. The LNPs demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity against lipopolysaccharides and human amyloid beta1-42 oligomer induction as they reduced the protein and mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α (p < 0.05) and IL-1β (p < 0.05) in IMG cells. In summary, the penetratin and mannose-functionalized LNPs encapsulating CBD and pBDNF could serve as a promising therapy in AD, requiring further validation in animal models.

Advancement in the Nose-to-Brain Drug delivery of FDA-approved drugs for the better management of Depression and Psychiatric disorders

The Prevalence of Depressive and Psychiatric disorders is increasing globally, and despite the availability of numerous FDA-approved drugs, treatment remains challenging. Many conventional antidepressants and antipsychotic formulations face issues such as low solubility, high first-pass metabolism, poor bioavailability, inadequate blood-brain barrier penetration, and systemic side effects. These challenges lead to reduced efficacy, slower onset of action, and decreased patient adherence to treatment. To address these problems, recent studies have explored the nose-to-brain route for drug delivery. This method offers several advantages, including non-invasive drug administration, direct access to the brain, rapid onset of action, reduced systemic exposure and side effects, avoidance of first-pass metabolism, enhanced bioavailability, precision dosing, and improved patient compliance. The formulations used for this approach include lipidic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, nasal gels, cubosomes, niosomes, polymeric micelles, nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, and elastosomes. This review analyzes and summarizes the published work on the nose-to-brain delivery of FDA-approved antidepressants and antipsychotic drugs, with a focus on the preparation, characterization, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity profiling of these nanoformulations.

Demystifying the potential of lipid-based nanocarriers in targeting brain malignancies

Drug targeting for brain malignancies is restricted due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB), which act as barriers between the blood and brain parenchyma. Certainly, the limited therapeutic options for brain malignancies have made notable progress with enhanced biological understanding and innovative approaches, such as targeted therapies and immunotherapies. These advancements significantly contribute to improving patient prognoses and represent a promising shift in the landscape of brain malignancy treatments. A more comprehensive understanding of the histology and pathogenesis of brain malignancies is urgently needed. Continued research focused on unraveling the intricacies of brain malignancy biology holds the key to developing innovative and tailored therapies that can improve patient outcomes. Lipid nanocarriers are highly effective drug delivery systems that significantly improve their solubility, bioavailability, and stability while also minimizing unwanted side effects. Surface-modified lipid nanocarriers (liposomes, niosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, lipid nanocapsules, lipid-polymer hybrid nanocarriers, lipoproteins, and lipoplexes) are employed to improve BBB penetration and uptake through various mechanisms. This systematic review illuminates and covers various topics related to brain malignancies. It explores the different methods of drug delivery used in treating brain malignancies and delves into the benefits, limitations, and types of brain-targeted lipid-based nanocarriers. Additionally, this review discusses ongoing clinical trials and patents related to brain malignancy therapies and provides a glance into future perspectives for treating this condition.

Exploring nanoparticular platform in delivery of repurposed drug for Alzheimer's disease: current approaches and future perspectives

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease (AD) stands as significant challenge in realm of neurodegenerative disorder. It is characterized by gradual decline in cognitive function and memory loss. It has already expanded its prevalence to 55 million people worldwide and is expected to rise significantly. Unfortunately, there exists a limited therapeutic option that would mitigate its progression. Repurposing existing drugs and employing nanoparticle as delivery agent presents a potential solution to address the intricate pathology of AD.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we delve into utilization of nanoparticular platforms to enhance the delivery of repurposed drugs for treatment of AD. Firstly, the review begins with the elucidation of intricate pathology underpinning AD, subsequently followed by rationale behind drug repurposing in AD. Covered are explorations of nanoparticle-based repurposing of drugs in AD, highlighting their clinical implication. Further, the associated challenges and probable future perspective are delineated.

EXPERT OPINION

The article has highlighted that extensive research has been carried out on the delivery of repurposed nanomedicines against AD. However, there is a need for advanced and long-term research including clinical trials required to shed light upon their safety and toxicity profile. Furthermore, their scalability in pharmaceutical set-up should also be validated.

A comprehensive review on lipid-based nanoparticles via nose to brain targeting as a novel approach

The central nervous system (CNS) has been a chief concern for millions of people worldwide, and many therapeutic medications are unable to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Advancements in nanotechnology have enabled safe, effective, and precise delivery of medications towards specific brain regions by utilising a nose-to-brain targeting route. This method reduces adverse effects, increases medication bioavailability, and facilitates mucociliary clearance while promoting accumulation of drug in the targeted brain region. Recent developments in lipid-based nanoparticles, for instance solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liposomes, nanoemulsions, and nano-structured lipid carriers have been explored. SLNs are currently the most promising drug carrier system because of their capability of transporting drugs across the blood-brain barrier at the intended brain site. This approach offers higher efficacy, controlled drug delivery, target specificity, longer circulation time, and a reduction in toxicity through a biomimetic mechanism.

Advances in Encapsulating Marine Bioactive Compounds Using Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) for Health Applications

As life expectancy rises and modern lifestyles improve, there is an increasing focus on health, disease prevention, and enhancing physical appearance. Consumers are more aware of the benefits of natural ingredients in healthcare products while also being mindful of sustainability challenges. Consequently, marine bioactive compounds have gained popularity as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements due to their diverse beneficial properties. Nonetheless, the use of some of these compounds is restricted by their low stability and poor aqueous solubility, necessitating solutions to overcome these limitations. In this context, lipid nanoparticles, such as solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), have been investigated for their potential to protect and improve the absorption of molecules through various routes, including oral and cutaneous. Numerous studies have shown that nanoencapsulating these compounds and incorporating them into cosmetics and food supplements can be effective. However, this application remains unregulated at the global level and is not currently addressed by existing legislation. Additional in vivo studies in both animals and humans are necessary to fully assess safety concerns.

The Preventive Effect of Ulinastatin on Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Rats with Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction After General Anaesthesia with Isoflurane

This study evaluated the effect of ulinastatin on blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction in rats with postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) following general anaesthesia with isoflurane. Specifically, we examined BBB permeability and the expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1). Rats in the ulinastatin group received the drug intraperitoneally (50,000 U/mL), while controls received normal saline (1 mL) administered before general anaesthesia. Isoflurane (1.5% volume) anaesthesia was induced for 2 h. Cognitive function was assessed using the Y-maze test. Two days after anaesthesia, BBB permeability was measured using Evans blue, and TIMP-1 expression was evaluated. Both groups experienced cognitive decline following anaesthesia. However, the ulinastatin group showed a more limited decrease (control group, 64.2 ± 19.3 → 30.2 ± 16.2, p = 0.008; ulinastatin group, 70.0 ± 15.7 → 66.5 ± 12.0, p = 0.67). The ulinastatin group showed a significantly lower permeability of the BBB (0.034 ± 0.003 µg/g in control group vs. 0.005 ± 0.002 µg/g in ulinastatin group, p = 0.0001), and also showed a significantly higher value of TIMP-1 expression (5.81 ± 1.94% in control group vs. 13.97 ± 2.59% in ulinastatin group, p = 0.0001). Administration of ulinastatin before general anaesthesia mitigated cognitive decline in rats with POCD, likely through the prevention of BBB dysfunction, as evidenced by the lower BBB permeability and increased TIMP-1 expression.

The Application of Nano Drug Delivery Systems in Female Upper Genital Tract Disorders

The prevalence of female reproductive system disorders is increasing, especially among women of reproductive age, significantly impacting their quality of life and overall health. Managing these diseases effectively is challenging due to the complex nature of the female reproductive system, characterized by dynamic physiological environments and intricate anatomical structures. Innovative drug delivery approaches are necessary to facilitate the precise regulation and manipulation of biological tissues. Nanotechnology is increasingly considered to manage reproductive system disorders, for example, nanomaterial imaging allows for early detection and enhances diagnostic precision to determine disease severity and progression. Additionally, nano drug delivery systems are gaining attention for their ability to target the reproductive system successfully, thereby increasing therapeutic efficacy and decreasing side effects. This comprehensive review outlines the anatomy of the female upper genital tract by highlighting the complex mucosal barriers and their impact on systemic and local drug delivery. Advances in nano drug delivery are described for their sustainable therapeutic action and increased biocompatibility to highlight the potential of nano drug delivery strategies in managing female upper genital tract disorders.

Nanotechnological approaches for efficient N2B delivery: from small-molecule drugs to biopharmaceuticals

Central nervous system diseases negatively affect patients and society. Providing successful noninvasive treatments for these diseases is challenging because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier. While protecting the brain's homeostasis, the barrier limits the passage of almost all large-molecule drugs and most small-molecule drugs. A noninvasive method, nose-to-brain delivery (N2B delivery) has been proposed to overcome this challenge. By exploiting the direct anatomical interaction between the nose and the brain, the drugs can reach the target, the brain. Moreover, the drugs can be encapsulated into various drug delivery systems to enhance physicochemical characteristics and targeting success. Many preclinical data show that this strategy can effectively deliver biopharmaceuticals to the brain. Therefore, this review focuses on N2B delivery while giving examples of different drug delivery systems suitable for the applications. In addition, we emphasize the importance of the effective delivery of monoclonal antibodies and RNA and stress the recent literature tackling this challenge. While giving examples of nanotechnological approaches for the effective delivery of small or large molecules from the current literature, we highlight the preclinical studies and their results to prove the strategies' success and limitations.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems Enhance Treatment of Cognitive Defects

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery presents a promising solution in enhancing therapies for neurological diseases, particularly cognitive impairment. These nanoparticles address challenges related to the physicochemical profiles of drugs that hinder their delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). Benefits include improved solubility due to particle size reduction, enhanced drug penetration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and sustained release mechanisms suitable for long-term therapy. Successful application of nanoparticle delivery systems requires careful consideration of their characteristics tailored for CNS delivery, encompassing particle size and distribution, surface charge and morphology, loading capacity, and drug release kinetics. Literature review reveals three main types of nanoparticles developed for cognitive function enhancement: polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, and metallic or inorganic nanoparticles. Each type and its production methods possess distinct advantages and limitations. Further modifications such as coating agents or ligand conjugation have been explored to enhance their brain cell uptake. Evidence supporting their development shows improved efficacy outcomes, evidenced by enhanced cognitive function assessments, modulation of pro-oxidant markers, and anti-inflammatory activities. Despite these advancements, clinical trials validating the efficacy of nanoparticle systems in treating cognitive defects are lacking. Therefore, these findings underscore the need for researchers to expedite clinical testing to provide robust evidence of the potential of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems.

Solubilization techniques used for poorly water-soluble drugs

About 40% of approved drugs and nearly 90% of drug candidates are poorly water-soluble drugs. Low solubility reduces the drugability. Effectively improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a critical issue that needs to be urgently addressed in drug development and application. This review briefly introduces the conventional solubilization techniques such as solubilizers, hydrotropes, cosolvents, prodrugs, salt modification, micronization, cyclodextrin inclusion, solid dispersions, and details the crystallization strategies, ionic liquids, and polymer-based, lipid-based, and inorganic-based carriers in improving solubility and bioavailability. Some of the most commonly used approved carrier materials for solubilization techniques are presented. Several approved poorly water-soluble drugs using solubilization techniques are summarized. Furthermore, this review summarizes the solubilization mechanism of each solubilization technique, reviews the latest research advances and challenges, and evaluates the potential for clinical translation. This review could guide the selection of a solubilization approach, dosage form, and administration route for poorly water-soluble drugs. Moreover, we discuss several promising solubilization techniques attracting increasing attention worldwide.

Alpha-Pinene-encapsulated lipid nanoparticles diminished inflammatory responses in THP-1 cells and imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin injury and splenomegaly in mice

Introduction

Psoriasis, a persistent skin condition caused by the disorder of the immune system, impacts approximately 1.25 million individuals globally. Nevertheless, the presence of adverse effects in conventional clinical drugs necessitates further exploration of novel medications or combination therapies to mitigate these reactions and enhance their effectiveness.

Methods

Hence, our intention here in this paper is to utilize the lipid nanoparticle delivery system for overcoming the volatility and hydrophobic properties of α-pinene, a naturally occurring compound renowned for its anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects, and further explore its potential pharmacological applications both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The production of α-pinene lipid nanoparticles (APLNs) was achieved through the utilization of high pressure homogenization methods. APLNs was successfully fabricated with enhanced stability and water solubility. Meanwhile, the application of APLNs could drastically reduce the expression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation-related factors in THP-1 cells. Administration of APLNs to a mouse model of auricular swelling could effectively reduce redness and swelling in the auricles of mice as well. Furthermore, APLNs were also found to alleviate skin damage in mice with Imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis model, as well as decrease the levels of psoriasis-related protein nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and interleukin-17 (IL-17), interleukin-23 (IL-23), and other inflammation-related cytokines. More importantly, utilization of APLNs successfully mitigated the systemic inflammatory reactions in mice, resulting in the reduction of spleen-to-body ratio (wt%) and of inflammatory cytokines' expression in the serum.

Discussion

Overall, our results suggest that with the help of lipid nanoparticle encapsulation, APLNs possess a better pharmacological effect in anti-inflammation and could potentially serve as an anti-psoriasis drug.

Design of experiment (DoE) of mucoadhesive valproic acid-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for potential nose-to-brain application

Epilepsy is a highly prevalent neurological disease and valproic acid (VPA) is used as a first-line chronic treatment. However, this drug has poor oral bioavailability, which requires the administration of high doses, resulting in adverse effects. Alternative routes of VPA administration have therefore been investigated, such as the nose-to-brain route, which allows the drug to be transported directly from the nasal cavity to the brain. Here, the use of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) to encapsulate drugs administered in the nasal cavity has proved advantageous. The aim of this work was to optimise a mucoadhesive formulation of VPA-loaded NLC for intranasal administration to improve the treatment of epilepsy. The Design of Experiment (DoE) was used to optimise the formulation, starting with component optimisation using Mixture Design (MD), followed by optimisation of the manufacturing process parameters using Central Composite Design (CCD). The optimised VPA-loaded NLC had a particle size of 76.1 ± 2.8 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.190 ± 0.027, a zeta potential of 28.1 ± 2.0 mV and an encapsulation efficiency of 85.4 ± 0.8%. The in vitro release study showed VPA release from the NLC of 50 % after 6 h and 100 % after 24 h. The in vitro biocompatibility experiments in various cell lines have shown that the optimised VPA-loaded NLC formulation is safe up to 75 µg/mL, in neuronal (SH-SY5Y), nasal (RPMI 2650) and hepatic (HepG2) cells. Finally, the interaction of the optimised VPA-loaded NLC formulation with nasal mucus was investigated and mucoadhesive properties were observed. The results of this study suggest that the use of intranasal VPA-loaded NLC may be a promising alternative to promote VPA targeting to the brain, thereby improving bioavailability and minimising adverse effects.

Nanoparticle-based approaches for treating restenosis after vascular injury

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is currently the main method for treating coronary artery stenosis, but the incidence of restenosis after PCI is relatively high. Restenosis, the narrowing of blood vessels by more than 50% of the normal diameter after PCI, severely compromises the therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, preventing postinterventional restenosis is important. Vascular restenosis is mainly associated with endothelial injury, the inflammatory response, the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) and intimal hyperplasia (IH) and is usually prevented by administering antiproliferative or anti-inflammatory drugs through drug-eluting stents (DESs); however, DESs can lead to uncontrolled drug release. In addition, as extracorporeal implants, they can cause inflammation and thrombosis, resulting in suboptimal treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a drug carrier with controlled drug release and high biocompatibility for in vivo drug delivery to prevent restenosis. The development of nanotechnology has enabled the preparation of nanoparticle drug carriers with low toxicity, high drug loading, high biocompatibility, precise targeting, controlled drug release and excellent intracellular delivery ability. This review summarizes the advantages of nanoparticle drug carriers for treating vascular restenosis, as well as how nanoparticles have improved targeting, slowed the release of therapeutic agents, and prolonged circulation in vivo to prevent vascular restenosis more effectively. The overall purpose of this review is to present an overview of nanoparticle therapy for vascular restenosis. We expect these findings to provide insight into nanoparticle-based therapeutic approaches for vascular restenosis.

Enhancing Acute Migraine Treatment: Exploring Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for the Nose-to-Brain Route

Migraine has a high prevalence worldwide and is one of the main disabling neurological diseases in individuals under the age of 50. In general, treatment includes the use of oral analgesics or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for mild attacks, and, for moderate or severe attacks, triptans or 5-HT1B/1D receptor agonists. However, the administration of antimigraine drugs in conventional oral pharmaceutical dosage forms is a challenge, since many molecules have difficulty crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the brain, which leads to bioavailability problems. Efforts have been made to find alternative delivery systems and/or routes for antimigraine drugs. In vivo studies have shown that it is possible to administer drugs directly into the brain via the intranasal (IN) or the nose-to-brain route, thus avoiding the need for the molecules to cross the BBB. In this field, the use of lipid nanoparticles, in particular solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), has shown promising results, since they have several advantages for drugs administered via the IN route, including increased absorption and reduced enzymatic degradation, improving bioavailability. Furthermore, SLN and NLC are capable of co-encapsulating drugs, promoting their simultaneous delivery to the site of therapeutic action, which can be a promising approach for the acute migraine treatment. This review highlights the potential of using SLN and NLC to improve the treatment of acute migraine via the nose-to-brain route. First sections describe the pathophysiology and the currently available pharmacological treatment for acute migraine, followed by an outline of the mechanisms underlying the nose-to-brain route. Afterwards, the main features of SLN and NLC and the most recent in vivo studies investigating the use of these nanoparticles for the treatment of acute migraine are presented.

Nanotechnology Approaches for Prevention and Treatment of Chemotherapy-Induced Neurotoxicity, Neuropathy, and Cardiomyopathy in Breast and Ovarian Cancer Survivors

Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach for the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents while improving their efficacy and safety. As a result, nanomaterial development for the selective targeting of cancers, with the possibility of treating off-target, detrimental sequelae caused by chemotherapy, is an important area of research. Breast and ovarian cancer are among the most common cancer types in women, and chemotherapy is an essential treatment modality for these diseases. However, chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity, neuropathy, and cardiomyopathy are common side effects that can affect breast and ovarian cancer survivors quality of life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop effective prevention and treatment strategies for these adverse effects. Nanoparticles (NPs) have extreme potential for enhancing therapeutic efficacy but require continued research to elucidate beneficial interventions for women cancer survivors. In short, nanotechnology-based approaches have emerged as promising strategies for preventing and treating chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity, neuropathy, and cardiomyopathy. NP-based drug delivery systems and therapeutics have shown potential for reducing the side effects of chemotherapeutics while improving drug efficacy. In this article, the latest nanotechnology approaches and their potential for the prevention and treatment of chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity, neuropathy, and cardiomyopathy in breast and ovarian cancer survivors are discussed.

Nanomedicine in Neuroprotection, Neuroregeneration, and Blood-Brain Barrier Modulation: A Narrative Review

Nanomedicine is a newer, promising approach to promote neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, and modulation of the blood-brain barrier. This review includes the integration of various nanomaterials in neurological disorders. In addition, gelatin-based hydrogels, which have huge potential due to biocompatibility, maintenance of porosity, and enhanced neural process outgrowth, are reviewed. Chemical modification of these hydrogels, especially with guanidine moieties, has shown improved neuron viability and underscores tailored biomaterial design in neural applications. This review further discusses strategies to modulate the blood-brain barrier-a factor critically associated with the effective delivery of drugs to the central nervous system. These advances bring supportive solutions to the solving of neurological conditions and innovative therapies for their treatment. Nanomedicine, as applied to neuroscience, presents a significant leap forward in new therapeutic strategies that might help raise the treatment and management of neurological disorders to much better levels. Our aim was to summarize the current state-of-knowledge in this field.

Small Scale, Big Impact: Nanotechnology-Enhanced Drug Delivery for Brain Diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases, ranging from brain cancers to neurodegenerative disorders like dementia and acute conditions such as strokes, have been heavily burdening healthcare and have a direct impact on patient quality of life. A significant hurdle in developing effective treatments is the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a highly selective barrier that prevents most drugs from reaching the brain. The tight junctions and adherens junctions between the endothelial cells and various receptors expressed on the cells make the BBB form a nonfenestrated and highly selective structure that is crucial for brain homeostasis but complicates drug delivery. Nanotechnology offers a novel pathway to circumvent this barrier, with nanoparticles engineered to ferry drugs across the BBB, protect drugs from degradation, and deliver medications to the designated area. After years of development, nanoparticle optimization, including sizes, shapes, surface modifications, and targeting ligands, can enable nanomaterials tailored to specific brain drug delivery settings. Moreover, smart nano drug delivery systems can respond to endogenous and exogenous stimuli that control subsequent drug release. Here, we address the importance of the BBB in brain disease treatment, summarize different delivery routes for brain drug delivery, discuss the cutting-edge nanotechnology-based strategies for brain drug delivery, and further offer valuable insights into how these innovations in nanoparticle technology could revolutionize the treatment of CNS diseases, presenting a promising avenue for noninvasive, targeted therapeutic interventions.

Investigating the potential of highly porous zopiclone-loaded 3D electrospun nanofibers for brain targeting via the intranasal route

Nanofibers (NFs) have proven to be very attractive tool as drug delivery plateform among the different plethora of nanosystems, owing to their unique features. They exhibit two- and three-dimensional structures some of which mimic structural environment of the body tissues, in addition to being safe, efficacious, and biocompatible drug delivery platform. Thus, this study embarked on fabricating polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan (PVA/CS) electrospun NFs encapsulating zopiclone (ZP) drug for intranasal brain targeted drug delivery. Electrospun NFs were optimized by adopting a three factor-two level full factorial design. The independent variables were: PVA/CS ratio (X1), flow rate (X2), and applied voltage (X3). The measured responses were: fiber diameter (Y1,nm), pore size (Y2,nm) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS,Y3,MPa). The selected optimum formula had resulted in NFs diameter of 215.90 ± 15.46 nm, pore size 7.12 ± 0.27 nm, and tensile strength around 6.64 ± 0.95 MPa. In-vitro biodegradability testing confirmed proper degradation of the NFs within 8 h. Moreover, swellability and breathability assessment revealed good hydrophilicity and permeability of the prepared NFs. Ex-vivo permeability study declared boosted ex-vivo permeation with an enhancement factor of 2.73 compared to ZP suspension. In addition, optimized NFs formula significantly reduced sleep latency and prolonged sleep duration in rats compared to IV ZP drug solution. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of employing the designed NFs as an effective safe platform for intranasal delivery of ZP for insomnia management.

Development of nanomedicines for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Raison d'être, strategies, challenges and regulatory aspects

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of memory. Presently, AD is challenging to treat with current drug therapy as their delivery to the brain is restricted by the presence of the blood-brain barrier. Nanomedicines, due to their size, high surface volume ratio, and ease of tailoring drug release characteristics, showed their potential to treat AD. The nanotechnology-based formulations for brain targeting are expected to enter the market in the near future. So, regulatory frameworks are required to ensure the quality, safety, and effectiveness of the nanomedicines to treat AD. In this review, we discuss different strategies, in-vitro blood-brain permeation models, in-vivo permeation assessment, and regulatory aspects for the development of nanomedicine to treat AD.

Exploring Curcumin-Loaded Lipid-Based Nanomedicine as Efficient Targeted Therapy for Alzheimer's Diseases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological condition currently with 47 million people suffering from it globally. AD might have many reasons such as genetic issues, environmental factors, and Aβ accumulation, which is the biomarker of the disease. Since the primary reason is unknown, there is no targeted treatment at the moment, but ongoing research aims to slow its progression by managing amyloid-beta peptide production rather than symptomatic improvement. Since phytochemicals have been demonstrated to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties, they may target multiple pathological factors and can reduce the risk of the disease. Curcumin, as a phytochemical found in turmeric known for its antioxidant, free radical scavenging properties, and as an antiamyloid in treating AD, has come under investigation. Although its low bioavailability limits its efficacy, a prominent drug delivery system (DDS) is desired to overcome it. Hence, the potency of lipid-based nanoparticles encapsulating curcumin (LNPs-CUR) is considered in this study as a promising DDS. In vivo studies in animal models indicate LNPs-CUR effectively slow amyloid plaque formation, leading to cognitive enhancement and reduced toxicity compared to free CUR. However, a deeper understanding of CUR's pharmacokinetics and safety profile is crucial before LNPs-CUR can be considered as a medicine. Future investigations may explore the combination of NPs with other therapeutic agents to increase their efficacy in AD cases. This review provides the current position of CUR in the AD therapy paradigm, the DDS suggestions for CUR, and the previous research from the point of analytical view focused on the advantages and challenges.

Recent advances of focused ultrasound induced blood-brain barrier opening for clinical applications of neurodegenerative diseases

With the aging population on the rise, neurodegenerative disorders have taken center stage as a significant health concern. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays an important role to maintain the stability of central nervous system, yet it poses a formidable obstacle to delivering drugs for neurodegenerative disease therapy. Various methods have been devised to confront this challenge, each carrying its own set of limitations. One particularly promising noninvasive approach involves the utilization of focused ultrasound (FUS) combined with contrast agents-microbubbles (MBs) to achieve transient and reversible BBB opening. This review provides a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental mechanisms behind FUS/MBs-mediated BBB opening and spotlights recent breakthroughs in its application for neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, it addresses the current challenges and presents future perspectives in this field.

Phytotherapeutic options for the treatment of epilepsy: pharmacology, targets, and mechanism of action

Epilepsy is one of the most common, severe, chronic, potentially life-shortening neurological disorders, characterized by a persisting predisposition to generate seizures. It affects more than 60 million individuals globally, which is one of the major burdens in seizure-related mortality, comorbidities, disabilities, and cost. Different treatment options have been used for the management of epilepsy. More than 30 drugs have been approved by the US FDA against epilepsy. However, one-quarter of epileptic individuals still show resistance to the current medications. About 90% of individuals in low and middle-income countries do not have access to the current medication. In these countries, plant extracts have been used to treat various diseases, including epilepsy. These medicinal plants have high therapeutic value and contain valuable phytochemicals with diverse biomedical applications. Epilepsy is a multifactorial disease, and therefore, multitarget approaches such as plant extracts or extracted phytochemicals are needed, which can target multiple pathways. Numerous plant extracts and phytochemicals have been shown to treat epilepsy in various animal models by targeting various receptors, enzymes, and metabolic pathways. These extracts and phytochemicals could be used for the treatment of epilepsy in humans in the future; however, further research is needed to study the exact mechanism of action, toxicity, and dosage to reduce their side effects. In this narrative review, we comprehensively summarized the extracts of various plant species and purified phytochemicals isolated from plants, their targets and mechanism of action, and dosage used in various animal models against epilepsy.

Neural Stem Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles: key Players in Ischemic Stroke Therapy - A Comprehensive Literature Review

Ischemic stroke, being a prominent contributor to global disability and mortality, lacks an efficacious therapeutic approach in current clinical settings. Neural stem cells (NSCs) are a type of stem cell that are only found inside the nervous system. These cells can differentiate into various kinds of cells, potentially regenerating or restoring neural networks within areas of the brain that have been destroyed. This review begins by providing an introduction to the existing therapeutic approaches for ischemic stroke, followed by an examination of the promise and limits associated with the utilization of NSCs for the treatment of ischemic stroke. Subsequently, a comprehensive overview was conducted to synthesize the existing literature on the underlying processes of neural stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (NSC-sEVs) transplantation therapy in the context of ischemic stroke. These mechanisms encompass neuroprotection, inflammatory response suppression, and endogenous nerve and vascular regeneration facilitation. Nevertheless, the clinical translation of NSC-sEVs is hindered by challenges such as inadequate targeting efficacy and insufficient content loading. In light of these limitations, we have compiled an overview of the advancements in utilizing modified NSC-sEVs for treating ischemic stroke based on current methods of extracellular vesicle modification. In conclusion, examining NSC-sEVs-based therapeutic approaches is anticipated to be prominent in both fundamental and applied investigations about ischemic stroke.

Blood-Brain Barrier-Targeting Nanoparticles: Biomaterial Properties and Biomedical Applications in Translational Neuroscience

Overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB) remains a significant hurdle in effective drug delivery to the brain. While the BBB serves as a crucial protective barrier, it poses challenges in delivering therapeutic agents to their intended targets within the brain parenchyma. To enhance drug delivery for the treatment of neurological diseases, several delivery technologies to circumvent the BBB have been developed in the last few years. Among them, nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the most versatile and promising tools. Here, we summarize the characteristics of NPs that facilitate BBB penetration, including their size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and importantly, their conjugation with various biological or synthetic molecules such as glucose, transferrin, insulin, polyethylene glycol, peptides, and aptamers. Additionally, we discuss the coating of NPs with surfactants. A comprehensive overview of the common in vitro and in vivo models of the BBB for NP penetration studies is also provided. The discussion extends to discussing BBB impairment under pathological conditions and leveraging BBB alterations under pathological conditions to enhance drug delivery. Emphasizing the need for future studies to uncover the inherent therapeutic properties of NPs, the review advocates for their role beyond delivery systems and calls for efforts translating NPs to the clinic as therapeutics. Overall, NPs stand out as a highly promising therapeutic strategy for precise BBB targeting and drug delivery in neurological disorders.

Targeting phosphodiesterase 4 as a potential therapy for Parkinson's disease: a review

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) have become a promising therapeutic target for various disorders. PDEs are a vast and diversified family of enzymes that degrade cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which have several biochemical and physiological functions. Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) is the most abundant PDE in the central nervous system (CNS) and is extensively expressed in the mammalian brain, where it catalyzes the hydrolysis of intracellular cAMP. An alteration in the balance of PDE4 and cAMP results in the dysregulation of different biological mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases. By inhibiting PDE4 with drugs, the levels of cAMP inside the cells could be stabilized, which may improve the symptoms of mental and neurological disorders such as memory loss, depression, and Parkinson's disease (PD). Though numerous studies have shown that phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors (PDE4Is) are beneficial in PD, there are presently no approved PDE4I drugs for PD. This review presents an overview of PDE4Is and their effects on PD, their possible underlying mechanism in the restoration/protection of dopaminergic cell death, which holds promise for developing PDE4Is as a treatment strategy for PD. Methods on how these drugs could be effectively delivered to develop as a promising treatment for PD have been suggested.

Intranasal drug delivery: The interaction between nanoparticles and the nose-to-brain pathway

Intranasal delivery provides a direct and non-invasive method for drugs to reach the central nervous system. Nanoparticles play a crucial role as carriers in augmenting the efficacy of brain delivery. However, the interaction between nanoparticles and the nose-to-brain pathway and how the various biopharmaceutical factors affect brain delivery efficacy remains unclear. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nose-to-brain pathway and the obstacles that hinder brain delivery. We then outlined the interaction between nanoparticles and this pathway and reviewed the biomedical applications of various nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for nose-to-brain drug delivery. This review aims at inspiring innovative approaches for enhancing the effectiveness of nose-to-brain drug delivery in the treatment of different brain disorders.

A One-Stone-Two-Birds Strategy of Targeting Microbubbles with "Dual" Anti-Inflammatory and Blood-Brain Barrier "Switch" Function for Ischemic Stroke Treatment

Inflammation is considered to be the main target of the development of new stroke therapies. There are three key issues in the treatment of stroke inflammation: the first one is how to overcome the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to achieve drug delivery, the second one is how to select drugs to treat stroke inflammation, and the third one is how to achieve targeted drug delivery. In this study, we constructed hydrocortisone-phosphatidylserine microbubbles and combined them with ultrasound (US)-targeted microbubble destruction technology to successfully open the BBB to achieve targeted drug delivery. Phosphatidylserine on the microbubbles was used for its "eat me" effect to increase the targeting of the microvesicles. In addition, we found that hydrocortisone can accelerate the closure of the BBB, achieving efficient drug delivery while reducing the entry of peripheral toxins into the brain. In the treatment of stroke inflammation, it was found that hydrocortisone itself has anti-inflammatory effects and can also change the polarization of microglia from the harmful pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype to the beneficial anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, thus achieving dual anti-inflammatory effects and enhancing the anti-inflammatory effects in ischemic areas after stroke, well reducing the cerebellar infarction volume by inhibiting the inflammatory response after cerebral ischemia. A confocal microendoscope was used to directly observe the polarization of microglial cells in living animal models for dynamic microscopic visualization detection showing the advantage of being closer to clinical work. Taken together, this study constructed a multifunctional targeted US contrast agent with the function of "one-stone-two-birds", which can not only "on-off" the BBB but also have "two" anti-inflammatory functions, providing a new strategy of integrated anti-inflammatory targeted delivery and imaging monitoring for ischemic stroke treatment.

How Precise are Nanomedicines in Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

New nanotechnology strategies for enhancing drug delivery in brain disorders have recently received increasing attention from drug designers. The treatment of neurological conditions, including brain tumors, stroke, Parkinson's Disease (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD), may be greatly influenced by nanotechnology. Numerous studies on neurodegeneration have demonstrated the effective application of nanomaterials in the treatment of brain illnesses. Nanocarriers (NCs) have made it easier to deliver drugs precisely to where they are needed. Thus, the most effective use of nanomaterials is in the treatment of various brain diseases, as this amplifies the overall impact of medication and emphasizes the significance of nanotherapeutics through gene therapy, enzyme replacement therapy, and blood-barrier mechanisms. Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of multifunctional nanotherapeutic agents, a promising treatment for brain disorders. This novel method reduces the side effects and improves treatment outcomes. This review critically assesses efficient nano-based systems in light of obstacles and outstanding achievements. Nanocarriers that transfer medications across the blood-brain barrier and nano-assisted therapies, including nano-immunotherapy, nano-gene therapy, nano enzyme replacement therapy, scaffolds, and 3D to 6D printing, have been widely explored for the treatment of brain disorders. This study aimed to evaluate existing literature regarding the use of nanotechnology in the development of drug delivery systems that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and deliver therapeutic agents to treat various brain disorders.

Lipidic Nanoparticles, Extracellular Vesicles and Hybrid Platforms as Advanced Medicinal Products: Future Therapeutic Prospects for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, affect a wide variety of the population and pose significant challenges with progressive and irreversible neural cell loss. The limitations of brain-targeting therapies and the unclear molecular mechanisms driving neurodegeneration hamper the possibility of developing successful treatment options. Thus, nanoscale drug delivery platforms offer a promising solution. This paper explores and compares lipidic nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles (EVs), and hybrid liposomal-EV nanoplatforms as advanced approaches for targeted delivery to combat neurodegeneration. Lipidic nanoparticles are well-characterized platforms that allow multi-drug loading and scalable production. Conversely, EVs offer the ability of selectively targeting specific tissues and high biocompatibility. The combination of these two platforms in one could lead to promising results in the treatment of neurodegeneration. However, many issues, such as the regulatory framework, remain to be solved before these novel products are translated into clinical practice.

Recent Advances in Intranasal Administration for Brain-Targeting Delivery: A Comprehensive Review of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles and Stimuli-Responsive Gel Formulations

Addressing disorders related to the central nervous system (CNS) remains a complex challenge because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the entry of external substances into the brain tissue. Consequently, finding ways to overcome the limited therapeutic effect imposed by the BBB has become a central goal in advancing delivery systems targeted to the brain. In this context, the intranasal route has emerged as a promising solution for delivering treatments directly from the nose to the brain through the olfactory and trigeminal nerve pathways and thus, bypassing the BBB. The use of lipid-based nanoparticles, including nano/microemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers, has shown promise in enhancing the efficiency of nose-to-brain delivery. These nanoparticles facilitate drug absorption from the nasal membrane. Additionally, the in situ gel (ISG) system has gained attention owing to its ability to extend the retention time of administered formulations within the nasal cavity. When combined with lipid-based nanoparticles, the ISG system creates a synergistic effect, further enhancing the overall effectiveness of brain-targeted delivery strategies. This comprehensive review provides a thorough investigation of intranasal administration. It delves into the strengths and limitations of this specific delivery route by considering the anatomical complexities and influential factors that play a role during dosing. Furthermore, this study introduces strategic approaches for incorporating nanoparticles and ISG delivery within the framework of intranasal applications. Finally, the review provides recent information on approved products and the clinical trial status of products related to intranasal administration, along with the inclusion of quality-by-design-related insights.

Oleaginous Microbial Lipids' Potential in the Prevention and Treatment of Neurological Disorders

The products of oleaginous microbes, primarily lipids, have gained tremendous attention for their health benefits in food-based applications as supplements. However, this emerging biotechnology also offers a neuroprotective treatment/management potential for various diseases that are seldom discussed. Essential fatty acids, such as DHA, are known to make up the majority of brain phospholipid membranes and are integral to cognitive function, which forms an important defense against Alzheimer's disease. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been shown to reduce recurrent epilepsy seizures and have been used in brain cancer therapies. The ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 PUFAs is essential in maintaining physiological function. Furthermore, lipids have also been employed as an effective vehicle to deliver drugs for the treatment of diseases. Lipid nanoparticle technology, used in pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals, has recently emerged as a biocompatible, biodegradable, low-toxicity, and high-stability means for drug delivery to address the drawbacks associated with traditional medicine delivery methods. This review aims to highlight the dual benefit that lipids offer in maintaining good health for disease prevention and in the treatment of neurological diseases.

Lipid-based nanoparticles to address the limitations of GBM therapy by overcoming the blood-brain barrier, targeting glioblastoma stem cells, and counteracting the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor, characterized by high heterogeneity, strong invasiveness, poor prognosis, and a low survival rate. A broad range of nanoparticles have been recently developed as drug delivery systems for GBM therapy owing to their inherent size effect and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs), such as liposomes, solid lipid NPs (SLNs), and nano-structured lipid carriers (NLCs), have emerged as the most promising drug delivery system for the treatment of GBM because of their unique size, surface modification possibilities, and proven bio-safety. In this review, the main challenges of the current clinical treatment of GBM and the strategies on how novel LBNPs overcome them were explored. The application and progress of LBNP-based drug delivery systems in GBM chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy in recent years were systematically reviewed, and the prospect of LBNPs for GBM treatment was discussed.