Presence of conspecifics reduces between-individual variation and increases avoidance of multiple stressors in bluegill

Silver carp experience metabolic and behavioral changes when exposed to water from the Chicago Area Waterway

One of the hallmarks of invasive species is their propensity to spread. Removing an invasive species after establishment is virtually impossible, and so considerable effort is invested in preventing the range expansion of invaders. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) were discovered in the Mississippi River in 1981 and have spread throughout the basin. Despite their propensity to expand, the 'leading edge' in the Illinois River has stalled south of Chicago and has remained stable for a decade. Studies have indicated that contaminants in the Chicago Area Waterway System (CAWS) may be contributing to the lack of upstream movement, but this hypothesis has not been tested. This study used a laboratory setting to quantify the role of contaminants in deterring upstream movement of silver carp within the CAWS. For this, water was collected from the CAWS near the upstream edge of the distribution and transported to a fish culture facility. Silver carp and one native species were exposed to CAWS water, and activity, behavior, avoidance, and metabolic rates were quantified. Results showed that silver carp experience an elevated metabolic cost in CAWS water, along with reductions in swimming behavior. Together, results indicate a role for components of CAWS water at deterring range expansion.

Thermal threshold and interspecific competition help explain intertidal hermit crab assemblages

Habitat heterogeneity promotes species diversity by providing a variety of abiotic and biotic conditions, whose impact on performance varies among species. Then, mobile species would be expected to move to areas whose conditions maximize their fitness. However, biotic pressures such as interspecific competition can push subordinate species into suboptimal areas, impeding this matching. The tropical hermit crab Clibanarius albidigitus occupies mostly upper intertidal sites where they can experience extreme environmental conditions. Meanwhile, its stronger agonistic competitor, Calcinus californiensis, mostly inhabits more moderate conditions at the mid intertidal. We estimated the avoidance threshold of the two hermit crab species to increasing water temperatures to help explain their intertidal distribution. We also compared the avoidance threshold of Cli. albidigitus to rising temperatures when presented alone and in the presence of chemical cues of its competitor to assess potential competitive niche exclusion. The avoidance threshold was measured in experimental tanks with a ramp that led from the water to an air-exposed platform; the threshold was defined as the temperature at which individuals emerged and remained air-exposed. Clibanarius albidigitus emerged at a higher temperature than its competitor, showing a higher thermal tolerance and potentially explaining its distribution in the upper intertidal. In the presence of Cal. californiensis, Cli. albidigitus emerged at lower temperature than when alone, likely as a strategy to reduce competition with stronger agonistic competitors, even at the cost of coping with harsh conditions. Our results support the hypothesis that competitive habitat exclusion contributes to explaining hermit crab assemblages.

Movement and behavioral states of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in response to a behavioral deterrent in a navigational lock

BACKGROUND

Freshwater ecosystems are some of the most affected by biological invasions due, in part, to the introduction of invasive carp worldwide. Where carp have become established, management programs often seek to limit further range expansion into new areas by reducing their movement through interconnected rivers and waterways. Lock and dams are important locations for non-physical deterrents, such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), to reduce unwanted fish passage without disrupting human use. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the behavioral responses of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) to non-physical deterrents within a navigation structure on the Fox River, Wisconsin. Acoustic telemetry combined with hidden Markov models (HMMs) was used to analyze variation in carp responses to treatments. Outcomes may inform CO₂ effectiveness at preventing invasive carp movement through movement pinch-points.

METHODS

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) was recently registered as a pesticide in the United States for use as a deterrent to invasive carp movement. As a part of a multi-component study to test a large-scale CO₂ delivery system within a navigation lock, we characterized the influence of elevated CO₂ and forced water circulation in the lock chamber on carp movements and behavior. Through time-to-event analyses, we described the responses of acoustic-tagged carp to experimental treatments including (1) CO₂ injection in water with forced water circulation, (2) forced water circulation without CO₂ and (3) no forced water circulation or CO₂. We then used hidden Markov models (HMMs) to define fine-scale carp movement and evaluate the relationships between carp behavioral states and CO₂ concentration, forced water circulation, and temperature.

RESULTS

Forced water circulation with and without CO₂ injection were effective at expelling carp from the lock chamber relative to null treatments where no stimulus was applied. A portion of carp exposed to forced water circulation with CO₂ transitioned from an exploratory to an encamped behavioral state with shorter step-lengths and a unimodal distribution in turning angles, resulting in some carp remaining in the lock chamber. Whereas carp exposed to forced water circulation only remained primarily in an exploratory behavioral state, resulting in all carp exiting the lock chamber.

CONCLUSION

Our findings illustrate the potential of forced water circulation, alone, as a non-physical deterrent and the efficacy of CO₂ injection with forced water circulation in expelling carp from a navigation lock. Results demonstrate how acoustic telemetry and HMMs in an experimental context can describe fish behavior and inform management strategies.

Wetland fishes avoid a carbon dioxide deterrent deployed in the field

Biological invasions are poorly controlled and contribute to the loss of ecosystem services and function. Altered watershed connectivity contributes to aquatic invasions, but such hydrologic connections have become important for human transport. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) deterrents have been proposed to control the range expansion of invasive fishes, particularly through altered hydrologic connections, without impeding human transport. However, the effectiveness of CO₂ deterrents needs to be further evaluated in the field, where fishes are situated in their natural environment and logistical challenges are present. We deployed a proof-of-concept CO₂ deterrent within a trap-and-sort fishway in Cootes Paradise, Ontario, Canada, to determine the avoidance responses of fishes attempting to disperse into a wetland. We aimed to describe deterrent efficiency for our target species, common carp, and for native fishes dispersing into the wetland. Our inexpensive inline CO₂ deterrent was deployed quickly and rapidly produced a CO₂ plume of 60 mg/l. Over 2000 fishes, representing 13 species, were captured between 23 May and 8 July 2019. A generalized linear model determined that the catch rates of our target species, common carp (n = 1662), decreased significantly during deterrent activation, with catch rates falling from 2.56 to 0.26 individuals per hour. Aggregated catch rates for low-abundance species (n < 150 individuals per species) also decreased, while catch rates for non-target brown bullhead (n = 294) increased. Species did not express a phylogenetic signal in avoidance responses. These results indicate that CO₂ deterrents produce a robust common carp avoidance response in the field. This pilot study deployed an inexpensive and rapidly operating deterrent, but to be a reliable management tool, permanent deterrents would need to produce a more concentrated CO₂ plume with greater infrastructural support.

Shuttle-box systems for studying preferred environmental ranges by aquatic animals

Animals' selection of environments within a preferred range is key to understanding their habitat selection, tolerance to stressors and responses to environmental change. For aquatic animals, preferred environmental ranges can be studied in so-called shuttle-boxes, where an animal can choose its ambient environment by shuttling between separate choice chambers with differences in an environmental variable. Over time, researchers have refined the shuttle-box technology and applied them in many different research contexts, and we here review the use of shuttle-boxes as a research tool with aquatic animals over the past 50 years. Most studies on the methodology have been published in the latest decade, probably due to an increasing research interest in the effects of environmental change, which underlines the current popularity of the system. The shuttle-box has been applied to a wide range of research topics with regards to preferred ranges of temperature, CO 2 , salinity and O 2  in a vast diversity of species, showing broad applicability for the system. We have synthesized the current state-of-the-art of the methodology and provided best practice guidelines with regards to setup, data analyses, experimental design and study reporting. We have also identified a series of knowledge gaps, which can and should be addressed in future studies. We conclude with highlighting directions for research using shuttle-boxes within evolutionary biology and behavioural and physiological ecology.

Group swimming behaviour and energetics in bluegill Lepomis macrochirus and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

Group swimming size influences metabolic energy consumption and swimming behaviour in fishes. Hydrodynamic flows and vortices of other fish are thought to be beneficial in terms of the energetic costs of swimming. Similarly, abiotic obstructions have been shown to have similar benefits with respect to metabolic consumption in swimming fish such as rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. The current study works to examine metabolic rates and swimming behaviours as a function of group swimming with bluegill sunfish Lepomis macrochirus and O. mykiss. Fishes were subjected to individual and group swimming in a respiratory swim tunnel to determine oxygen consumption as a proxy for the metabolic rate of swimming fish. In addition, fish movements within the swim tunnel test chamber were tracked to examine group swimming behaviour. We hypothesized that fish would benefit metabolically from group swimming. In the case of O. mykiss, we also hypothesized that groups would benefit from the presence of an abiotic structure, as has been previously observed in fish swimming individually. Our results suggest that the influence of group size on swimming metabolism is species specific. While L. macrochirus show decreased metabolic rate when swimming in a group compared to individually, O. mykiss did not show such a metabolic benefit from group swimming.

Individual behavioural traits not social context affects learning about novel objects in archerfish

Abstract

Learning can enable rapid behavioural responses to changing conditions but can depend on the social context and behavioural phenotype of the individual. Learning rates have been linked to consistent individual differences in behavioural traits, especially in situations which require engaging with novelty, but the social environment can also play an important role. The presence of others can modulate the effects of individual behavioural traits and afford access to social information that can reduce the need for ‘risky’ asocial learning. Most studies of social effects on learning are focused on more social species; however, such factors can be important even for less-social animals, including non-grouping or facultatively social species which may still derive benefit from social conditions. Using archerfish, Toxotes chatareus, which exhibit high levels of intra-specific competition and do not show a strong preference for grouping, we explored the effect of social contexts on learning. Individually housed fish were assayed in an ‘open-field’ test and then trained to criterion in a task where fish learnt to shoot a novel cue for a food reward—with a conspecific neighbour visible either during training, outside of training or never (full, partial or no visible presence). Time to learn to shoot the novel cue differed across individuals but not across social context. This suggests that social context does not have a strong effect on learning in this non-obligatory social species; instead, it further highlights the importance that inter-individual variation in behavioural traits can have on learning.

Significance statement

Some individuals learn faster than others. Many factors can affect an animal’s learning rate—for example, its behavioural phenotype may make it more or less likely to engage with novel objects. The social environment can play a big role too—affecting learning directly and modifying the effects of an individual’s traits. Effects of social context on learning mostly come from highly social species, but recent research has focused on less-social animals. Archerfish display high intra-specific competition, and our study suggests that social context has no strong effect on their learning to shoot novel objects for rewards. Our results may have some relevance for social enrichment and welfare of this increasingly studied species, suggesting there are no negative effects of short- to medium-term isolation of this species—at least with regards to behavioural performance and learning tasks.

Development of Carbon Dioxide Barriers to Deter Invasive Fishes: Insights and Lessons Learned from Bigheaded Carp

Invasive species are a threat to biodiversity in freshwater. Removing an aquatic invasive species following arrival is almost impossible, and preventing introduction is a more viable management option. Bigheaded carp are an invasive fish spreading throughout the Midwestern United States and are threatening to enter the Great Lakes. This review outlines the development of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) as a non-physical barrier that can be used to deter the movement of fish and prevent further spread. Carbon dioxide gas could be used as a deterrent either to cause avoidance (i.e., fish swim away from zones of high CO2), or by inducing equilibrium loss due to the anesthetic properties of CO2 (i.e., tolerance). The development of CO2 as a fish deterrent started with controlled laboratory experiments demonstrating stress and avoidance, and then progressed to larger field applications demonstrating avoidance at scales that approach real-world scenarios. In addition, factors that influence the effectiveness of CO2 as a fish barrier are discussed, outlining conditions that could make CO2 less effective in the field; these factors that influence efficacy would be of interest to managers using CO2 to target other fish species, or those using other non-physical barriers for fish.