Association between Maternal sensitivity and Externalizing Behavior from Preschool to Preadolescence

Predicting externalizing behaviors in typically developing toddlers at 24 months: Insights from parenting at 12 months

Early observational assessment of parent and child behaviors may identify risk factors associated with the development of early child externalizing behaviors. This study aimed to examine factors associated with child externalizing behaviors at 24-months of age, including early maternal depression, family social risk and the parent-child relationship. Using a longitudinal design in 89 mother-child dyads (n = 43 female), maternal depressive symptoms and social risk were measured post-birth, and 12-months later parent-child interaction was assessed using the Emotional Availability Scales. To assess child externalizing behaviors, a parent-report questionnaire was administered when children were 24-months old. Increased early maternal depressive symptoms (p = .03), but not higher social risk (p = 0.17), were associated with higher child externalizing behaviors in children at age 24-months. After adjusting for early maternal depressive symptoms and familial social risk, lower levels of observed maternal structuring (β = -2.60, 95 %CI = -4.56, -0.64, p = .01) and lower levels of non-hostility (β = -3.39, 95 %CI -6.64, -0.14, p = .04) when the child was 12-months old were associated with higher parent-report of externalizing behaviors. However, the child's observed interaction behavior was not associated with the mother's report of child externalizing behavior. Interventions targeting specific post-natal maternal mental health and early parenting behaviors may reduce the risk for the development of later child externalizing problems.

The mediating role of child delay of gratification in the link between early and prolonged poverty exposure and adolescent allostatic load

Early and prolonged exposure to poverty disrupts biological processes associated with the body's stress response system, leading to long-term negative health outcomes, including obesity, autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular disease. Allostatic load (AL), a composite measure of chronic stress on the body, is a robust predictor of subsequent health outcomes. However, developmental research examining the associations of early poverty exposure with AL in adolescence, as well as the underlying mechanisms of influence is limited. Early poverty exposure also impedes healthy development of child self-regulation, which may increase risk for high AL in adolescence, but this mechanistic pathway has not yet been tested. We used data from the national Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) to examine the longitudinal associations between prolonged poverty exposure in early childhood (0-3 years) and AL in adolescence (age 15). We also tested the mediating role of child delay of gratification, a behavioral measure of self-regulation (at age 54 months), in the potential association between early poverty exposure and adolescent AL. Accounting for model covariates (i.e., child biological sex and race-ethnicity) and individual differences in child delay of gratification, early and prolonged poverty exposure was significantly associated with higher AL at age 15. The indirect effect through child delay of gratification was not significant, but the individual pathways of the indirect effect were significant, and the overall direct association of early poverty exposure with adolescent AL was significant. Our findings show that prolonged exposure to poverty in early childhood (0-3 years) can have significant negative associations with both child delay of gratification (at 54 months) and AL (at age 15). Given that the detrimental impacts of poverty exposure can be detected at an early age, targeted prevention efforts (e.g., anti-poverty programs such as cash assistance programs) may be able to offset some of the risks of early poverty exposure on self-regulation and AL.

Maternal sensitivity and child internalizing and externalizing behavior: a mediating role for glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) methylation?

The early caregiving environment can have lasting effects on child mental health. Animal models suggest that glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) DNA methylation plays a mediating role in linking more responsive caregiving to improved behavioral outcomes by its impact on the stress regulatory system. In this longitudinal study, we examined whether children's NR3C1 methylation levels mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity in infancy on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior in a community sample. Maternal sensitivity of 145 mothers was rated at infant age 5 weeks, 12 months, and 30 months by observing mother-infant interactions. Buccal DNA methylation was assessed in the same children at age 6 years and maternal-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior was assessed at age 6 and 10 years. Higher sensitivity at age 5 weeks significantly predicted lower DNA methylation levels at two NR3C1 CpG loci, although methylation levels at these loci did not mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior. Overall, the study provides evidence that maternal sensitivity in early infancy is associated with DNA methylation levels at loci involved in stress regulation, but the significance of this finding for child mental health remains unclear.

Vagal Flexibility Moderates the Links between Observed Sensitive Caregiving in Infancy and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Middle Childhood

This study explored how patterns of physiological stress reactivity underpin individual differences in sensitivity to early rearing experiences and childhood risk for psychopathology. To examine individual differences in parasympathetic functioning, past research has largely relied on static measures of stress reactivity (i.e., residual and change scores) in infancy which may not adequately capture the dynamic nature of regulation across contexts. Using data from a prospective longitudinal study of 206 children (56% African Americans) and their families, this study addressed these gaps by employing the latent basis growth curve model to characterize the dynamic, non-linear patterns of change in infants' respiratory sinus arrhythmia (i.e., vagal flexibility) across the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm. Furthermore, it investigated whether and how infants' vagal flexibility moderates the links between sensitive parenting, observed during a free play task when children were 6 months of age, and parent-report of children's externalizing problems at 7 years of age. Results of the structural equation models revealed that infants' vagal flexibility moderates the predictive relations between sensitive parenting in infancy and children's later externalizing problems. Simple slope analyses revealed that low vagal flexibility, characterized by less suppression and flatter recovery patterns, exacerbated risk for externalizing psychopathology in the context of insensitive parenting. Children with low vagal flexibility also benefited most from sensitive parenting, as indicated by the lower number of externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in the light of the biological sensitivity to context model and provide evidence for vagal flexibility as a biomarker of individual's sensitivity to early rearing contexts.

Contextual risks, child problem-solving profiles, and socioemotional functioning: Testing the specialization hypothesis

Guided by the evolutionary perspective and specialization hypothesis, this multi-method (behavioral observation, questionnaire) longitudinal study adopted a person-centered approach to explore children's problem-solving skills within different contexts. Participants were 235 young children (M age = 2.97 years at the first measurement occasion) and their parents assessed in two measurement occasions spaced one year apart. Latent profile analyses revealed four unique problem-solving profiles, capturing variability in children's performance, and observed engagement in abstract vs. reward-oriented (RO) problem-solving tasks at wave one. The four profiles included: (a) a high-abstract-high-RO, (b) a high-abstract-low-RO, (c) a low-abstract-high-RO, and (d) a low-abstract-low-RO classes. Contextual risks within and outside families during wave one, including greater neighborhood crime, impoverishment, and observed lower maternal sensitivity were linked to the elevated likelihood for children from the two profiles with low-abstract problem-solving, particularly those from the low-abstract-high-RO problem-solving profile. Furthermore, child problem-solving profiles were linked to meaningful differences in their socioemotional functioning one year later. The present finding has important implications in revealing the heterogeneity in child problem-solving within different contexts that responded differently to contextual risks. In addition, this study advanced the understanding of the developmental implications of child problem-solving capacity.

Profiles of early family environments and the growth of executive function: Maternal sensitivity as a protective factor

We identified family risk profiles at 6 months using socioeconomic status (SES) and maternal mental health indicators with data from the Family Life Project (N = 1,292). We related profiles to executive function (EF) at 36 months (intercept) and growth in EF between 36 and 60 months. Latent profile analysis revealed five distinct profiles, characterized by different combinations of SES and maternal mental health symptoms. Maternal sensitivity predicted faster growth in EF among children in the profile characterized by deep poverty and the absence of maternal mental health symptoms. Maternal sensitivity also predicted higher EF intercept but slower EF growth among children in the profile characterized by deep poverty and maternal mental health symptoms, and children in the near poor (low SES), mentally healthy profile. Maternal sensitivity also predicted higher EF intercept but had no effect on growth in EF in the near poor, mentally distressed profile. In contrast, maternal sensitivity did not predict the intercept or growth of EF in the privileged SES/mentally healthy profile. Our findings using a person-centered approach provide a more nuanced understanding of the role of maternal sensitivity in the growth of EF, such that maternal sensitivity may differentially affect the growth of EF in various contexts.

Attachment- and Emotion-Focused Parenting Interventions for Child and Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis

Attachment- and emotion-focused parenting interventions (AE) have grown in popularity as an alternative to behavioral parent training (BPT) for children and adolescents. AE go beneath behavior by helping parents understand and respond to their child’s underlying attachment and emotional needs. Past reviews have examined their effects on attachment security and caregiver sensitivity, though less is known regarding their effects on child mental health symptoms. Reported here is the first systematic review and meta-analysis of individual and group AE on externalizing behavior (EXT) and internalizing behavior (INT) for children aged 0–18 years. A search of four databases prior to July 2021 elicited 43 studies that met eligibility criteria. Meta-analysis revealed that AE were superior to waitlist controls for EXT (SMD = − 0.17) and INT (SMD = − 0.34). Effects were sustained at follow-up periods of 6 months and greater, and AE considered to target child mental health were significantly more effective than those that did not in reducing EXT and INT. Two studies retrieved directly compared AE to BPT, which showed no evidence of a difference for follow-up measures of EXT. No studies compared AE to BPT on INT. AE demonstrated no evidence of superiority compared to controls for parent mental health. Findings support the potential for AE to reduce EXT and INT in children and adolescents; however, future research should consider the relative effectiveness of AE.

Contact with biological parents following placement in foster care: Associations with preschool child externalizing behavior

Externalizing behavior problems are a salient issue in the context of child protection services, where associations with placement stability and caregiving behavior have been documented. Moreover, although research on the association between contact with biological parents and foster child externalizing behavior problems is scarce and has yielded mixed results, several studies have shown links between the two variables. The purpose of this study is to determine the association of face-to-face contact with biological parents and externalized behaviors, while taking into account placement instability and foster parent interactive sensitivity. Fifty preschoolers and their foster parents were visited at home. Child externalizing behavior problems were self-reported by foster parents, foster parent sensitivity was measured via play observations, and information relative to placement was collected through interviews with biological parents and gathered from social services data. Results reveal that more frequent contact with biological parents and lower levels of foster parent sensitivity are independently linked to greater levels of externalizing behavior problems even after controlling for placement instability. Discussion focuses on the importance of children's relationship experiences during foster care and the necessity to investigate their role to more clearly understand foster child socioemotional development.

The Mediational Effect of Affect Dysregulation on the Association Between Attachment to Parents and Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms in Adolescents

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a childhood disorder, commonly occurring in early school aged children with some symptoms becoming normative in adolescence (e.g., irritability, disagreeing). Affect dysregulation is a risk factor in the development of ODD. Affect regulation is nurtured within parent-child relationships, thus disruptions to attachment may derail children's capacity to develop adaptive affect regulation, increasing the risk for ODD. Using a high-risk sample of adolescents, we investigated the association between attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance with ODD through affect dysregulation. Attachment anxiety, but not avoidance, was associated with affect dysregulation and ODD. Affect dysregulation was found to fully mediate the relationship between attachment anxiety and ODD concurrently and prospectively. Similar findings have been demonstrated among children; results show that attachment anxiety, and its effects on affect dysregulation, are associated with ODD symptoms well into adolescence.

Birth Complications and Negative Emotionality Predict Externalizing Behaviors in Young Twins: Moderations with Genetic and Family Risk Factors

We examined interactions among genetic, biological, and ecological variables predicting externalizing behaviors in preschool and middle childhood. Specifically, we examined prediction of externalizing behaviors from birth complications and negative emotionality, each moderated by genetic risk for aggression and ecological risk factors of insensitive parenting and low family income. At ages 4 and 5 years, 170 twin pairs and 5 triplet sets (N = 355 children) were tested; 166 of those children were tested again at middle childhood (M = 7.9 years). Multilevel linear modeling results showed generally that children at high genetic risk for aggression or from low-income families were likely to have high scores on externalizing, but for children not at high risk, those with increased birth complications or more negative emotionality had high scores on externalizing. This study underscores the importance of considering biological variables as moderated by both genetic and ecological variables as they predict externalizing behaviors across early childhood.

Developmental pathways from maternal history of childhood maltreatment and maternal depression to toddler attachment and early childhood behavioral outcomes

The current study examined the development of toddler attachment and early childhood behavior among children of mothers with a history of childhood maltreatment and current major depressive disorder. Maternal depression, maternal sensitivity, and toddler attachment were assessed as mediators of the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child internalizing and externalizing behavior. Participants were from a low-income, largely racial minority urban sample and included 123 mothers with (n = 69) and without (n = 54) major depressive disorder at baseline and their children assessed at 12, 26, and 36 months old. Findings suggest maternal depression and maternal sensitivity mediated the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and disorganized attachment. Maternal depression, but not disorganized attachment, mediated the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child symptomatology. Results suggest that supporting mothers through depression and processing their adverse childhood experiences are critical in fostering positive child development.

Internalizing and externalizing problems in preschool children: The role of mothers' and fathers' observed parenting behavior in a well-resourced sample

Empirical evidence links sensitive parenting behavior to positive developmental trajectories in children, whereas parental intrusiveness, in contrast, has been found to increase the risk of socio-emotional problems in children of various ages. However, most studies investigating the effect of parenting behavior have been conducted with mothers. Thus, little is yet known about fathers' role in child development and if mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviors are linked to child socio-emotional outcomes in similar or different ways. To date, findings are ambiguous, and this is why more studies are needed. The present study examined associations between mothers' and fathers' observed sensitivity and intrusiveness and children's internalizing and externalizing problems as reported by parents and by children themselves. The sample compromised 52 mothers, 41 fathers and their preschool children. Results from hierarchical regression analyses showed a negative association between fathers' intrusiveness, at low levels, and children's internalizing problems. This result was unexpected. However, in line with this finding, a number of recent studies suggest that when fathers challenge and push their children's limits, it buffers against emotional problems such as anxiety. The present study highlights the importance of a continuous investigation into fathers' potentially unique contribution to children's socio-emotional development. No other associations were identified between mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviors and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Most likely, because this study was conducted with a low-risk sample, where children were in general well-functioning.

Parenting Behavior at 18 Months Predicts Internalizing and Externalizing Problems at 6 Years in Moderately Preterm and Full Term Children

Moderately preterm born children (MPT) are at increased risk for behavior problems compared to full term born (FT) children. MPT children may receive less optimal parenting, and in response, may develop behavior problems. Our aims were to examine whether parenting behavior and mother–child interaction quality mediate the association between birth status and child behavior problems. Participants were 120 MPT children and 100 FT children. At 18 months of age, mothers reported on their parenting behavior (support and structure), and mother–child interaction (sensitivity and limit-setting) was observed. At 6 years of age, mothers reported on children’s behavior problems. Using structural equation modeling, birth status was found to predict attention problems, but not internalizing and externalizing problems. Mothers of MPT children set less appropriate limits than mothers of FT children at 18 months of age. More maternal structure at 18 months predicted fewer internalizing and externalizing problems, but not attention problems, at 6 years. These associations between parenting behavior, mother–child interaction quality, and child behavior problems were similar for MPT and FT children. Our findings indicate that maternal structure in toddlerhood is an important predictor of later internalizing and externalizing problems for both MPT and FT children.

Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting Stress, Responsiveness, and Child Wellbeing Among Low-Income Families

Robust research shows that parenting stress is associated with reduced parental sensitivity toward their children (i.e., parental responsiveness), thus negatively influencing child outcomes. While there is strong research supporting these associations, most studies utilize self-report measures of responsiveness and exclude fathers. This study examines whether observed parental responsiveness mediates the relationship between parenting stress and child cognitive development, prosocial behavior, and behavior problems in a large sample of diverse low-income families. Data were obtained from the Building Strong Families Project (N=1,173). Dyadic bootstrapped mediation models were estimated in Mplus. For mothers and fathers, parenting stress was negatively associated with responsiveness (B = -.08, 95% CI = [-.14, -.02], p = .012), and responsiveness was positively associated with child cognitive development (B = .15, 95% CI = [.11, .19], p < .001) and child prosocial behavior (B = .12, 95% CI = [.08, .15], p < .001). Mothers' responsiveness was negatively associated with child behavior problems (B = -.07, 95% CI = [-.13, -.01], p = .020), but fathers' responsiveness was not (B = -.01, 95% CI = [-.06, .05], p = .814). For mothers and fathers, parenting stress was indirectly related to child cognitive development and prosocial behavior via responsiveness. Indirect effects were not found for mothers or fathers when predicting child behavior problems. To improve children's wellbeing, interventions may consider strengthening responsiveness and reducing parental stress among both mothers and fathers.

Do Mothers or Children Lead the Dance? Disentangling Individual and Influence Effects During Conflict

Are mother-child conflict discussions shaped by time-varying, reciprocal influences, even after accounting for stable contributions from each individual? Mothers were filmed discussing a conflict for 5 min, separately with their younger (ages 5-9, N = 217) and older (ages 7-13, N = 220) children. Each person's conflict constructiveness was coded in 20-s intervals and data were analyzed using dynamic structural equation modeling, which separates individual and influence effects. Children influenced their mothers' behavior under certain conditions, with evidence for developmental differences in the magnitude and direction of influence, whereas mothers did not influence their children under any circumstance. Results are discussed in the context of child effects on parent behavior and changes in parenting across middle childhood.

Mothers' and fathers' observed interaction with preschoolers: Similarities and differences in parenting behavior in a well-resourced sample

Parenting behavior is a key factor in children's socio-emotional development. However, little is known about similarities and differences in maternal and paternal parenting behavior, as most studies have focused on mothers. The present study investigated similarities and differences in mothers' and fathers' parenting behavior during observed free play with their preschool children, in a Danish well-resourced sample. We examined differences in mean scores and associations between mothers' and fathers' sensitivity, intrusiveness and limit-setting assessed with the Coding Interactive Behavior instrument. Additionally, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis to test the model-fit between the measurement model and parental data. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to investigate if maternal and paternal factor structures replicated the three parenting constructs, and to explore if certain parenting behaviors seemed specifically related to either mothering or fathering. Participants included 52 mothers, 41 fathers and their 5-year old children. Similar mean scores were found for mothers and fathers on all parenting constructs. Maternal and paternal parenting behavior were not correlated. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a poor model-fit. For both mothers and fathers, latent factors related to sensitivity, intrusiveness and limit-setting emerged, which indicated that the Coding Interactive Behavior instrument was suitable for assessment of both maternal and paternal sensitivity, intrusiveness and limit-setting. However, item loadings suggested that the instrument assessed maternal sensitivity more accurately than paternal sensitivity in our sample. Two additional factors were retrieved for fathers, i.e. paternal performance and challenging behavior, and paternal teaching behavior. This finding may suggest that additional parenting constructs need to be developed for researchers to be able to thoroughly investigate similarities and differences in mothers' and fathers' parenting behavior. Despite difference in factor structure, we did not identify behaviors solely related to mothering or to fathering.

Mother-child role confusion, child adjustment problems, and the moderating roles of child temperament and sex

Role confusion is a deviation in the parent-child relationship such that a parent looks to a child to meet the parent's emotional needs and abdicates, in part, the parental role in exchange for care, intimacy, or peer support from the child. In addition, a child may initiate role-confused behavior in order to gain closeness to a parent who is otherwise preoccupied by his or her own needs. The current study examined associations between mother-child role confusion at age 5 (we coded role confusion from filmed free-play mother-child interactions) and teacher reports of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and peer problems, at Grade 1. The sample (N = 557) is from a longitudinal study of families in rural communities, the Family Life Project. Mother-child role confusion predicted internalizing symptoms and peer problems (but not externalizing symptoms) above and beyond other dimensions of maternal parenting (sensitivity and harsh intrusiveness), demographic factors, and prior levels of outcome variables. However, some effect sizes were small, making replication desirable. Temperament and child sex were important moderators: girls with difficult temperaments and boys with easy temperaments were more vulnerable to internalizing symptoms (but not externalizing symptoms or peer problems) in the context of role confusion. We discuss the singular importance of role confusion, a construct that has been largely unrecognized by developmental psychologists until recently, for behavioral outcomes of children as they transition into middle childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record

Maternal Attributions of Infant Behavior and Parenting in Toddlerhood Predict Teacher-Rated Internalizing Problems in Childhood

Social-information-processing theories of parenting posit that parents' beliefs and attributions about their children's behaviors contribute to how parents interact with their children. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between negative parenting attributions in infancy, harsh-intrusive parenting in toddlerhood, and children's internalizing problems (IPs) in early childhood. Using data from a diverse longitudinal study (n = 206), the current study used a structural equation modeling approach to test if mothers' negative attributions measured at 6 months predicted teacher ratings of children's IPs in 1st grade, as well as the extent to which observed harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors measured at ages 1, 2, and 3 years mediated this link. Maternal negative attributions in infancy predict more IPs in 1st grade, but this link becomes nonsignificant when observed harsh-intrusive parenting is included as a mediator. A significant indirect effect suggests that harsh-intrusive parenting mediates the association between early negative attributions and eventual IPs. Findings from this study identify harsh-intrusive parenting behaviors as one potential mechanism through which the effects of early attributions are carried forward to influence children's IPs. The developmental and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Behavioral problems of school children: impact of social vulnerability, chronic adversity, and maternal depression

This study’s objective was to identify the predictive effect of indicators concerning social vulnerability, chronic adversity, and maternal depression on behavioral problems among school-aged children, according to the perceptions of mothers and teachers, considering the presence or absence of difficulties in the contexts of family and school. A total of 85 pairs of mothers and school children were distributed into three groups according to the behavioral problems identified. A General Questionnaire, the PHQ-9, the Chronic Adversity Scale, and the (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) SDQ were applied to the mothers; the Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices were applied to the children; and the SDQ was applied to the teachers. Data were analyzed with descriptive, predictive, and comparative statistical procedures (p ≤ 0.05). The results reveal the presence of cumulative risks for children with behavioral problems; mothers more frequently identified behavioral problems than teachers; and maternal depression was a predictor for behavioral problems. Such findings are relevant for devising mental health programs.

Bidirectional effects between parenting sensitivity and child behavior: A cross-lagged analysis across middle childhood and adolescence

Using a longitudinal, cross-lagged design, this study examined the bidirectional relations between mothers' and fathers' sensitivity and children's externalizing (EXT) and internalizing (INT) behavior from middle childhood into adolescence. The subsample comprised families (N = 578) in which the mother and father cohabitated from the study's first time point (child age = 54 months) through Age 15 in the longitudinal NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Study results revealed differential patterns for mother-child and father-child relations in the full sample and separately for males and females. The full cross-lagged models revealed that child EXT behavior predicted maternal sensitivity, but not vice versa, and fathers' sensitivity and child behavior were reciprocally interrelated. There was a significant indirect pathway from early paternal sensitivity to later EXT in males, and from early maternal sensitivity to INT in females. The results point to the important roles that fathers play in child INT and EXT behaviors and important differences between males and females. (PsycINFO Database Record

Externalizing behavior from early childhood to adolescence: Prediction from inhibition, language, parenting, and attachment

The aim of the current research was to disentangle four theoretically sound models of externalizing behavior etiology (i.e., attachment, language, inhibition, and parenting) by testing their relation with behavioral trajectories from early childhood to adolescence. The aim was achieved through a 10-year prospective longitudinal study conducted over five waves with 111 referred children aged 3 to 5 years at the onset of the study. Clinical referral was primarily based on externalizing behavior. A multimethod (questionnaires, testing, and observations) approach was used to estimate the four predictors in early childhood. In line with previous studies, the results show a significant decrease of externalizing behavior from early childhood to adolescence. The decline was negatively related to mothers’ coercive parenting and positively related to attachment security in early childhood, but not related to inhibition and language. The study has implications for research into externalizing behavior etiology recommending to gather hypotheses from various theoretically sound models to put them into competition with one another. The study also has implications for clinical practice by providing clear indications for prevention and early intervention.

A Mother's Borderline Personality Disorder and Her Sensitivity, Autonomy Support, Hostility, Fearful/Disoriented Behavior, and Role Reversal With Her Young Child

There is some evidence that maternal borderline personality disorder (BPD) adversely affects parenting in infancy, resulting in disorganized attachment, which longitudinally predicts BPD symptoms in adulthood. We examined parenting related to disorganized attachment beyond infancy in offspring of mothers with BPD, when parenting becomes a goal-corrected partnership. We observed puzzle solving in a low socioeconomic status (SES) sample of mothers with BPD and their children ages 4-7, n = 36, and normative comparisons, n = 34. Compared with normative mothers and controlling for maternal mood disorders, mothers with BPD were less likely to be sensitive and provide autonomy support, and were more likely to be hostile and display fearful/disoriented behavior and higher levels of parent-child role reversal. We additionally found correlations between parenting and self-reported maternal borderline features. We discuss implications for child development, including possible transmission of BPD from mothers to children via representational models, and developmentally appropriate preventive interventions.

Marital stress and children's externalizing behavior as predictors of mothers' and fathers' parenting

Previous research suggests that mothers' and fathers' parenting may be differentially influenced by marital and child factors within the family. Some research indicates that marital stress is more influential in fathers' than mothers' parenting, whereas other research shows that children's difficult behavior preferentially affects mothers' parenting. The present study examined marital stress and children's externalizing behavior in middle childhood as predictors of mothers' versus fathers' consistency, monitoring, and support and care in early adolescence, and the subsequent associations of these parenting behaviors with externalizing behavior 1.5 years later. Pathways were examined within a longitudinal mediation model testing for moderation by parent gender (N = 276 mothers, N = 229 fathers). Children's externalizing behavior in middle childhood was found to more strongly inversely predict mothers' versus fathers' monitoring in early adolescence. In contrast, marital stress more strongly predicted low monitoring for fathers than for mothers. Regardless of parent gender, marital stress predicted lower levels of parental consistency, and children's externalizing behavior predicted lower levels of parental support. Mothers' monitoring and fathers' support in early adolescence predicted lower levels of externalizing behavior 1.5 years later. The results are discussed with respect to family transactions relative to parent gender and implications for intervention.

Maternal warmth and toddler development: support for transactional models in disadvantaged families

Studies support cognitive and social domains of development as entwined in childhood, however, there is a paucity of investigation into the nature of the mother-child relationship within an interdependence framework. Furthermore, the focus on these processes within families from impoverished communities using frequent assessments in early childhood has been limited. Our objectives were to identify (1) the directional associations between toddler's communication ability and social competence, (2) to establish whether the association between toddler's communication ability and social competence is mediated by maternal warmth, and (3) to establish support for transactional models between toddlers' outcomes and maternal warmth in disadvantaged communities in Ireland. Participants included 173 toddlers and their families enrolled in a prenatally commencing prevention programme. Toddler's communication and social competence were assessed at 12, 18, 24 and 36 months and maternal warmth at 6 and 24 months. Cross-lagged models were estimated examining multiple paths of associations simultaneously. Direct and indirect paths of maternal warmth were also examined. Bi-directional associations were found between communication ability and social competence from 12 to 24 months but not thereafter. Maternal warmth did not significantly mediate these associations, however, support of a transactional model was found with social competence. The results support early positive associations between better communication ability and social competence in the first 2 years, however, they suggest that these associations are no longer present by the third year. The role of maternal warmth in fostering social competencies is important for toddlers and equally important is toddler's level of social competence in eliciting increased maternal warmth.

Daycare Center Attendance Buffers the Effects of Maternal Authoritarian Parenting Style on Physical Aggression in Children

A maternal authoritarian style has been related to the development of physical aggression during childhood and later future social problems; however, not too many studies have detected other than individual or family factors that may buffer this maternal effect. This work examines whether daycare center attendance may moderate the relationships between a mother authoritarian style and physical aggression. The study sample was 72 (40 girls) kindergarten children from Spain. Parents were asked to complete two questionnaires focused on individual family characteristics and parenting styles. At age 5, children physical aggression was assessed by direct observation at playtime; aggression scores at 6 was obtained by a peer-rated questionnaire. A least squared multiple regression was performed after controlling for children’s level of physical aggression at 5, child sex and siblings. A positive contribution of maternal authoritarian style on physical aggression was detected. Daycare center attendance appears to attenuate the effect of the mother’s authoritarian style on physical aggression, only in boys.

Infant temperamental reactivity, maternal and grandparental sensitivity: Differential susceptibility for behavior problems in China

BACKGROUND

The differential susceptibility hypothesis suggests that children's innate characteristics and their rearing experiences interact differentially during development. Recently, the study of interactions between infants' temperament and rearing experiences has become a research hotspot. In China, grandparental care is a very common phenomenon, with many infants taken care of by grandparents while mothers are out for work.

AIM

To investigate whether the associations between maternal and grandmaternal sensitivity, and behavior problems were moderated by infant temperamental reactivity, while the infants were raised by both their mothers and grandmothers.

SUBJECTS

A total of 71 infants (average age of 17.6months), their mothers and grandmothers were included in this study.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Maternal sensitivity and grandmaternal sensitivity were assessed with the Maternal Behavior Q-sort-Chinese Version, infants' temperamental reactivity was measured with Carey's Toddler Temperament Questionnaire-Chinese Revision, and infants' behavior problems were measured with the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment-Chinese Version.

RESULTS

Maternal sensitivity significantly predicted infants' impulsivity and aggression. Infants' temperamental reactivity moderated the effect of maternal sensitivity on infants' general anxiety. In addition, infant temperamental reactivity moderated the impact of grandmaternal sensitivity on infants' separation distress.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the differential susceptibility hypothesis to some extent. Infants with high temperamental reactivity not only suffer more from low maternal and grandmaternal sensitivity, but also benefit more from high maternal and grandmaternal sensitivity as compared to those infants with low temperamental reactivity.

The interplay among socioeconomic status, household chaos, and parenting in the prediction of child conduct problems and callous-unemotional behaviors

Child conduct problems (CP) reflect a heterogeneous collection of oppositional, aggressive, norm-violating, and sometimes violent behaviors, whereas child callous-unemotional (CU) behaviors reflect interpersonal styles of interactions reflecting a lack of guilt and empathy as well as uncaring and shallow emotional responses to others. Taken together, high levels of child CP and CU behaviors are thought to identify a relatively homogenous group of children at elevated risk for persistent and more severe problem behaviors across childhood and into adulthood. Although a large body of research has examined the developmental etiology of CP behaviors, only recently has a developmental psychopathology approach been applied to early CU behaviors. The current study examines multiple levels of contextual influences during the first years of life, including family socioeconomic status, household chaos, and parenting behaviors, on CP and CU behaviors assessed during the first-grade year. Whereas previous studies found associations between parenting behaviors and child problem behaviors moderated by household chaos, the current study found no evidence of moderation. However, path analyses suggest that the associations between child CP and CU behaviors and the contextual variables of socioeconomic status (family income and parental education) and household chaos (disorganization and instability) were mediated by maternal sensitive and harsh-intrusive parenting behavior. Analyses are presented, interpreted, and discussed with respect to both bioecological and family stress models of development.

Rates, Associations, and Predictors of Psychopathology in a Convenience Sample of School-Aged Latino Youth: Identifying Areas for Mental Health Outreach

The Latino youth population is rapidly growing and expected to comprise nearly 40% of the total youth population by 2060. Unfortunate disparities exist in the United States (U.S.), such that young Latinos are less likely than non-Hispanic Whites to receive and benefit from mental health services. In order to identify and prioritize specific areas of mental health outreach, the current study examined preliminary rates, associations, and predictors of child psychopathology in a convenience sample of Latino youth. 123 Spanish and English speaking Latino parents of school-aged children completed a series of questionnaires regarding child and family functioning. Latino youth in the current sample demonstrated comparable rates of psychopathology to non-referred, normative samples. Parental acculturation (particularly Separated parental acculturation status: high orientation to Latino culture and low orientation to U.S. mainstream culture) was associated with an increased prevalence of clinically significant psychopathology across several domains, and socioeconomic status was associated with an increased prevalence of thought problems. Additionally, Separated parental acculturation status significantly predicted the prevalence of clinically significant anxious/depressed problems, such that youth of parents displaying Separated acculturation status were significantly more represented in the clinically-elevated groups than the functional groups. These preliminary results suggest that prioritizing outreach to Latino youth of parents maintaining orientation to Latino culture but not U.S. mainstream culture may be necessary in order to begin addressing existing mental health disparities in the U.S.

Ebb and Flow in Parent-Child Interactions: Shifts from Early through Middle Childhood

OBJECTIVE

This study documents the strength of relations between key parent and child behaviors as they occur during typical encounters for both mothers and fathers and determines whether there were shifts in the strength of relations between parent and child behaviors during early and middle childhood.

DESIGN

Multivariate multi-level modeling was used to examine associations between three parent behaviors (respect for autonomy, stimulation of development, hostility) and two child behaviors (agency, negativity) as they occurred in typical parent-child activities at four time points from 54 months through 5th grade for 817 families.

RESULTS

For mothers and fathers, respect for autonomy and stimulation were associated with child agency. Paternal hostility was negatively associated with child agency, but for mothers the relation became more positive with age. Parental respect for autonomy and hostility were associated with child negativity for both mothers and fathers; however, for mothers, relations between autonomy support and child negativity became more positive, and relations between hostility and child negativity became less positive.

CONCLUSIONS

There are clear shifts in the strength of relations between some parenting behaviors and child behaviors from early to middle childhood, indicative of a changing dialectic as children become more independent and different dialectics for mothers and fathers. Parenting behavior links to child competence and adaptive behavior, and the findings may help resolve some uncertainties about relations between parental behavior and children's developmental trajectories.

Effects of early adversity on young children's diurnal cortisol rhythms and externalizing behavior

Early adversity is associated with biological and behavioral dysregulation in early childhood. We examined whether early adversity (i.e., poverty and involvement with child protective services [CPS]) had an indirect effect on externalizing behavior through HPA axis dysregulation, specifically blunted diurnal cortisol patterns. Participants included 94 children between the ages of 3.94 and 6.52 years old, who had a history of CPS involvement (n = 53) or no history of CPS involvement (n = 41). Cortisol samples were collected at wake-up and bedtime across 3 days, and parent-reported externalizing behavior was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist. Results showed that history of CPS involvement and poverty were associated with blunted cortisol patterns, which in turn led to elevated externalizing behavior. The indirect effect of CPS involvement on externalizing behavior through blunted cortisol was significant, whereas the indirect effect of poverty on externalizing behavior was nonsignificant. Findings add to our understanding of neurobiological mechanisms linking early adversity to psychopathology.

Children's mental representations with respect to caregivers and post-traumatic symptomatology in Somatic Symptom Disorders and Disruptive Behavior Disorders

Introduction: In line with literature, the quality of adult–infant interactions and mental representations of the caregivers play an essential role in influencing the children’s well-being. Many studies focused the attention on the role of attachment for a better evaluation of child psychopathological outcomes. The flexibility of the child’s attachment model gives the opportunity to parents to be helped in modifying their own caregiving quality, encouraging the reflection on the children’s state of mind with respect to attachment. The aims of this study were to evaluate: (1) the attachment models in young patients diagnosed with Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBDs) and Somatic Symptoms Disorders (SSDs); (2) the levels of post-traumatic symptomatology; (3) the association between the attachment models and post-traumatic symptomatology.

Methods: Forty Italian patients, aged from 8 to 15, recruited at Gaslini Paediatric Hospital of Genoa, previously diagnosed with SSD (N = 20) and DBD (N = 20) were assessed using the Child Attachment Interview (CAI), the Separation Anxiety Test (SAT), the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC-A). Socio-demographic data were collected.

Results: In both the clinical samples, the findings on the distribution of attachment models showed a significant presence of insecure attachment with respect to both parents in more than a half of the patients and high levels of disorganized attachment. No significant differences between DBD and SSD samples were found on post-traumatic symptomatology (Post-Traumatic Stress and Dissociation). Significant differences were found on Depression, Anxiety, and Fantasy subscales.

Discussion: This study can provide a detection of dysfunctional aspects in clinical populations. The findings suggest that the quality of the attachment to parents may be a fundamental element to better assess SSD and DBD in children and adolescents. Clinical implications of this study aimed at improving parental caregiving are highlighted.

Differential susceptibility in a developmental perspective: DRD4 and maternal sensitivity predicting externalizing behavior

This study is the first to investigate the longitudinal effects of gene-environment interplay between DRD4 genotype and maternal sensitivity on child externalizing behavior. Multiple measures of maternal sensitivity (14, 36, and 48 months) and externalizing behavior (18 months, 36 months, and 5 years) were assessed in a large cohort study (N = 548). Early maternal insensitivity (14 months) was associated with early externalizing behavior (18 months) in a for better and for worse manner, but only in children with at least one DRD4 7-repeat, consistent with a differential susceptibility model. Later insensitivity (48 months) predicted externalizing behavior at age 5 independent of DRD4 genotype. A structural equation model including all measures across time supported the differential susceptibility model: The overall effect of early maternal sensitivity on later externalizing behavior was significant only for children with a DRD4 7-repeat allele. The results highlight the importance of studying gene-environment interactions across development.