Endocrine, immune and renal toxicity in male largemouth bass after chronic exposure to glyphosate and Rodeo®

A novel Cu2+-coordinated fluorescent sensing system for specific detection of glyphosate and its applications in environmental and biological systems

Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide widely used in agriculture, and its overexposure poses significant health and environmental risks. Herein, a novel Cu2+-coordinated fluorescent sensing system (HYBC-Cu2+ system) based on acylhydrazone groups was designed, capable of glyphosate-specific recognition. The HYBC-Cu2+ system was constructed with simple steps, with the advantages of short recognition time (< 1 min), good specificity, anti-interference, and excellent sensitivity (LOD = 95 nM). The effect of proton functional group on glyphosate resulted in Cu2+ of the HYBC-Cu2+ system being able to be competed down by the glyphosate to release HYBC thus inducing the fluorescence enhancement of the system and realizing the rapid detection of glyphosate. The recognition mechanism by the HYBC-Cu2+ system was verified by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), density function theory (DFT) calculations and Job's Plot. The system can cycle alternately to detect the glyphosate more than 6 times and effectively quantify trace glyphosate in environmental samples. Furthermore, the HYBC-Cu2+ system has low cytotoxicity and good membrane permeability, which can enter HeLa cells and zebrafish to react rapidly with exogenous glyphosate, resulting in fluorescence enhancements that are visually distinctive. The application of HYBC-Cu2+ system can further promote the development of pesticide residue monitoring methods such as glyphosate and provide scientific basis for policy making and public health protection.

Glyphosate combined with TBBPA exposure decreased quality and flavor of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) involved inhibiting muscle growth and collagen synthesis

Glyphosate (N-[phosphonomethyl] glycine, GLY) is the active ingredient of the most widely used commercialized herbicide, and its use increases the potential for co-occurrence with flame retardants such as Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), posing a threat to aquatic systems and food safety. Therefore, it is important to prioritize evaluating these two compounds' combined toxicity. However, only a few studies have analyzed the effects of pollutant mixing on fish from the perspectives of molecular and nutritional components. In this study, the impact of TBBPA and GLY on muscle development and flesh quality was investigated by exposing common carp to water-borne TBBPA and/or GLY for 30 days. The results showed that TBBPA and GLY exposure decreased the anti-oxidant capacity and content of most free amino acids in common carp muscle. Textural analysis suggested that the meat flesh's hardness, cohesiveness, and chewiness were decreased under TBBPA and GLY exposure. In addition, the decreased cross-sectional area of muscle fibers and collagen deposition were observed in the carp muscle exposed to TBBPA and/or GLY. Further analysis of related genes indicated the co-exposure of TBBPA and GLY significantly upregulated the levels of FoxO1 and MuRF-1, and decreased the levels of MyoD1, Collagen I, α-SMA, and TGF-β. Collectively, our results illustrated that exposure to TBBPA and GLY could inhibit muscle growth and decrease nutritional value in common carp.

Ecotoxicological mechanism of glyphosate on Moerella iridescens: Evidence from enzyme, histology and metabolome

This study aimed to elucidate the regulatory mechanisms underlying the toxic effects of glyphosate (GLY) on rainbow clam (M. iridescens), with implications for their culture and conservation. GLY residues in aquatic systems raise significant environmental and public health concerns, yet the underlying mechanisms remain largely elusive. In this study, M. iridescens were acutely exposed to GLY at various concentrations (0, 2.34, 5.45, 12.74, 29.74, and 69.46 mg/L) for 7 days. Gill and hepatopancreas samples were collected to assess oxidative stress status and histopathological examination. Additionally, three concentration groups low concentration (LC) group at 2.34 mg/L, medium concentration (MC) group at 12.74 mg/L, and high concentration (HC) group at 69.46 mg/L were selected for metabolomic analysis. The findings indicated that GLY exposure led to oxidative stress and structural changes in tissues. The metabolomic analysis suggested that GLY exposure exacerbates inflammatory responses and disrupts endocrine function, and sex hormones.

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in fish

The importance of steroidogenesis is underscored by its vital and conserved functions from higher to lower vertebrate species, such as stress, immune and inflammatory responses, sexual development and reproduction, osmoregulation and even the ability to adapt to the environment and environmental changes. Correspondingly, the rate-limiting step of steroidogenesis mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein is an ongoing target for scientific investigation. An expanding collection of studies has now reported key similarities, as well as some differences, in the transcriptional and translational regulation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein across species. This review will discuss the current understanding of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in fish, as these lower vertebrate models uniquely rely on steroid hormones for osmotic balance, reproductive functions, responses to environmental stimuli and much more.

Blood Biochemical Biomarkers in Fish Toxicology-A Review

Blood-based biochemical assays are used as predictive and diagnostic methods to evaluate fish welfare in aquaculture and research. The variations of blood biochemical parameters in fish are commonly used as biomarkers of exposure to toxic agents. Blood biochemical parameters can help identify the magnitude of toxicity and the mechanisms by which particular toxic agents act on the organisms. Some parameters typically measured in the blood can also be evaluated in the whole body in the early developmental stages of fish (embryos and larvae) that are often used in toxicological studies. This review assessed the usefulness of various blood biochemical indices as toxicity biomarkers. Analysis of multiple studies showed that toxicity-induced changes in most blood biochemical parameters in fish often depend on toxic agent concentration and exposure duration. Also, various parameters manifest different sensitivity to intoxication, and diverse directions of changes may occur. Among biochemical parameters, some are biomarkers of general physiological stress, while others indicate dysfunctions of particular organs. Moreover, hormonal endpoints seem to be sensitive but nonspecific biomarkers of intoxication in fish.

Exposure to oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and endocrine dysfunction: Multi-level study based on hormone receptor responses

Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs) are a class of emerging environmental contaminants that exhibit high toxicity compared to parent PAHs. In addition to carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic effects, recent studies show their potential to cause endocrine disruption, but the reports are controversial. In this study, we employed hormone receptors (ERα/AR/GRα/TRβ)-mediated dual luciferase reporter gene assay and molecular docking, and found that five typical OPAHs exhibited agonistic activity towards hormone receptors, and hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions were the primary binding forces involved in OPAHs-receptor interactions. Then, we developed a weighted scoring system coupled with computerized screening and clarified that 1,2-benzanthraquinone (BAQ) had the strongest hormonal effects, while anthraquinone (AQ) exhibited the weakest effects. Using the in vivo exposure model, we clarified that BAQ induced hormone receptor-coupled developmental toxicity in zebrafish larvae, evidenced by increased expression of androgen receptors and key genes involved in hormone synthesis, pericardial edema and reduced body length. Importantly, we successfully constructed androgen response element-enhanced green fluorescent protein (ARE-EGFP) transient transfection zebrafish embryos, and confirmed the androgenic potency of BAQ, but not AQ. These findings highlight the endocrine-disrupting effects in the risk management of OPAHs.

Effect of glyphosate on renal function: A study integrating epidemiological and experimental evidence

Glyphosate, a widely used herbicide globally, has prompted concerns regarding its potential health impacts. This study aimed to explore the link between glyphosate exposure and renal function by combining NHANES, a zebrafish model, and metabolomics. A cross-sectional analysis of 2013-2014 NHANES data investigated the relationship between glyphosate exposure and renal function [albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR)]. A subsequent zebrafish experiment was conducted to verify this association. Embryos (0.75 hpf-96 hpf) were exposed to different glyphosate concentrations dissolved in water (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 μg/mL). The underlying mechanism of the association between glyphosate and renal function was explored by the real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and non-targeted metabolomics analysis [embryos (0.75 hpf-96 hpf) were exposed to 90 μg/mL glyphosate]. 1170 participants were enrolled in the NHANES study. The NHANES-based study found a positive association between glyphosate and ACR [0.07 (0.01, 0.13)]. Higher urinary glyphosate levels, particularly in the third quartile group, were negatively linked to eGFR [-3.72 (-5.98, -1.46)]. Further zebrafish experiments indicated that zebrafish exposed to 90 μg/mL glyphosate exhibited increased mortality rates, higher fluorescence intensity, up-regulated the havcr1 expression level, and cystic dilatation of the kidney. Non-targeted metabolomics analysis identified differential metabolites (e.g., 5-Hydroxyindole acetic acid) and pathways (e.g., ABC transporters) influenced by glyphosate. Glyphosate exposure is negatively associated with renal function in community adults. The damage to the kidneys caused by glyphosate may be mediated through the regulation of metabolic pathways, and the specific mechanisms require further experimental investigation.

Melatonin prevents glyphosate-induced hepatic lipid accumulation in roosters via activating Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Glyphosate (GLY) is a widely used herbicide with well-defined hepatotoxic effects, in which oxidative stress has been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of hepatotoxicity. Melatonin (MET), an effective free radical scavenger, has been revealed to alleviate drug-induced liver damage by inhibiting oxidative stress.

METHODS

In this study, a rooster model with primary chicken embryo hepatocytes was applied to elucidate the therapeutic effects of MET against GLY-induced hepatic damage and the potential mechanism. Histopathological examinations, biochemical tests and immunoblotting analysis were used to monitor the protective effects of MET on GLY-induced hepatic lipid accumulation. Molecular docking analysis was used to reveal the key reason of MET-improved hepatic lipid deposition.

RESULTS

Data firstly showed that MET administration markedly improved GLY-induced hepatic injury, as evidenced by normalized liver enzymes and alleviated pathological changes of liver tissues. Moreover, MET supplementation alleviated GLY-induced hepatic lipid accumulation, which was correlated with improved serum and hepatic lipid profiles and normalized expression of lipolysis- and lipogenesis-related proteins. Notably, MET significantly inhibited vital enzymes involved in stimulating oxidative stress. Moreover, MET enhanced GLY-inhibited Nrf2 nuclear transcription and increased the expressions of its downstream target genes HO1 and NQO1. Further studies revealed that MET may interact with Nrf2 to enhance nuclear translocation of Nrf2.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our results provide the first direct evidence that MET is a novel regulator of Nrf2, highlighting that Nrf2 may be a potential therapeutic target for GLY-induced lipotoxic liver injury.

In vitro impacts of glyphosate on manatee lymphocytes

Exposure to contaminants, such as the herbicide glyphosate, can suppress protective immune functions. Glyphosate is the herbicide most used worldwide and has been found in the plasma of more than 50 % of the Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and all-year-round in their aquatic environment. Our objectives were to analyze the consequences of glyphosate exposure on their immune responses via T-lymphocyte proliferation assays and transcriptomics. We isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (mainly lymphocytes) of free-ranging manatees and performed T-cell proliferation assays. We used transcriptomics to understand the consequences of glyphosate in vitro exposure. The three doses chosen ranged from environmentally relevant concentrations at 10 to 10,000 µg.L-1 that is considered an environmental contamination scenario. Glyphosate caused a dose-dependent reduction in T-lymphocyte proliferation, with a significant mean reduction of 27.3 % at 10,000 µg.L-1 and up to 51.5 % in some individuals. Additionally, T-lymphocyte proliferation was significantly reduced in mid-winter compared to early winter. Transcriptomic analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells indicated that all doses of glyphosate (10, 1,000, and 10,000 µg.L-1) resulted in up-regulation of genes related to acute phase inflammation and inhibition of the T-lymphocyte proliferation pathway. Exposure to this contaminant along with other environmental stressors, such as extreme winters and red tide, might further affect the adaptive immune response of this threatened species.

Persistent effects of larval exposure to glyphosate in mangrove rivulus fish

Glyphosate, a key ingredient in many herbicides, is increasingly present in aquatic systems due to agricultural runoff. High doses of glyphosate cause defects in organisms due to its ability to interfere with physiological processes as an endocrine disruptor. We used the mangrove rivulus fish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) to evaluate the effects of larval exposure to glyphosate on non-target species in aquatic environments. These fish produce genetically identical offspring, allowing us to evaluate phenotypic responses to toxicant exposure while controlling for genetics. We treated newly hatched larvae for 96 h with concentrations of glyphosate on the low and high end of what they would experience in the wild: control (0 mg/L), low (0.01 mg/L), and high (1.1 mg/L), and then measured behavior, morphology, and reproductive traits at 60 and 130 days. We predicted that these amphibious fish exposed to low, environmentally relevant doses would show adaptive emersion behavior to escape poor quality water conditions, and deficits in other traits would be greater with higher glyphosate dosages. We found that low doses (0.01 mg/L) of glyphosate led to lower anxiety (decreased thigmotaxis) and impaired jumping behaviors while high dose exposures to glyphosate resulted in lower activity and lower average egg yield per individual. None of these effects appeared to be adaptive at low or high doses of glyphosate. While deficits in reproductive output scaled with dosage, phenotypic effects were often dosage-specific for each trait. This study demonstrates that even environmentally relevant concentrations of herbicide may be harmful to aquatic organisms and have consequences that persist well into adulthood. Furthermore, given that environmentally relevant concentrations of glyphosate induced deficits in reproductive output, this suggests that glyphosate contamination in natural systems may have population level consequences.

A comparative study on the immune response in the head and trunk kidney of yellow catfish infected with Edwardsiella ictaluri

The teleost kidneys are anatomically divided into head kidney and trunk kidney, each performing distinct physiological functions. Although previous research has elucidated the role of the head kidney in immune responses, there is a paucity of literature on the comparative studies of the head and trunk kidney response to bacterial infection. Therefore, an Edwardsiella ictaluri infection model of yellow catfish was constructed to investigate and compare the immune responses between the two kidney types. The findings indicated that E. ictaluri infection induced significant pathological changes in both the head and trunk kidney. Despite variances in structure, both the head and trunk kidney of yellow catfish exhibit robust immune responses following E. ictaluri infection. Unexpectedly, the up-regulation level of IgM was found to be higher in the trunk kidney compared to the head kidney. Additionally, both the IgM+ and IgD+ B cells were increased after bacterial infection. This research elucidates the parallels and distinctions in immune functions between both the head and trunk kidney in fish, enriching the immune theory of the fish kidney, and also providing a theoretical basis for the immune response of teleost kidney against bacterial infections.

Glyphosate and its formulated product Roundup Transorb R® affect locomotor activity and reproductive and developmental parameters in Jenynsia lineata fish: An intergenerational study

Glyphosate is the most widely utilized herbicide worldwide due to its effectiveness in controlling agricultural weeds. However, its persistence in aquatic ecosystems has raised concerns about the well-being of non-target organisms such as fish. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of chronic exposure (21 days) to glyphosate or its formulated product Roundup Transorb R®, at an environmentally relevant concentration permitted by regulations in certain countries (65 μg/L of glyphosate), on the locomotor activity and reproductive success of the fish Jenynsia lineata, as well as on the morphology/development and locomotor activity of its offspring, as intergenerational effects. Neither the pure nor formulated herbicide altered the distance traveled and velocity of adult fish exposed to the herbicide (F0), but they negatively affected reproductive success, decreasing the percentage of positive response to the presence of the female, reducing the number of gravid females, causing abortions, and lowering offspring survival (F1). In the F1 generation, a decrease in weight and length was noted along with developmental abnormalities in both treatment groups (pure or formulated glyphosate), with the formulation causing more harm. Observed developmental abnormalities included muscle atrophy, ascites, pigmentary disorders, vertebral agenesis, spinal deviation, and exophthalmia. Furthermore, parental exposure to pure glyphosate led to an increase in the distance traveled and velocity of F1 (hyperlocomotion), whereas exposure to the formulated product resulted in a decrease in these behaviors (hypolocomotion) of F1. These findings highlight the toxic effects of glyphosate at very low concentrations, although varying between pure and formulated, and demonstrate the intergenerational consequences of herbicide exposure, underscoring the risk to the survival of fish offspring in glyphosate-contaminated environments.

Glyphosate resistance and biodegradation by Burkholderia cenocepacia CEIB S5-2

Glyphosate is a broad spectrum and non-selective herbicide employed to control different weeds in agricultural and urban zones and to facilitate the harvest of various crops. Currently, glyphosate-based formulations are the most employed herbicides in agriculture worldwide. Extensive use of glyphosate has been related to environmental pollution events and adverse effects on non-target organisms, including humans. Reducing the presence of glyphosate in the environment and its potential adverse effects requires the development of remediation and treatment alternatives. Bioremediation with microorganisms has been proposed as a feasible alternative for treating glyphosate pollution. The present study reports the glyphosate resistance profile and degradation capacity of the bacterial strain Burkholderia cenocepacia CEIB S5-2, isolated from an agricultural field in Morelos-México. According to the agar plates and the liquid media inhibition assays, the bacterial strain can resist glyphosate exposure at high concentrations, 2000 mg·L-1. In the degradation assays, the bacterial strain was capable of fast degrading glyphosate (50 mg·L-1) and the primary degradation metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in just eight hours. The analysis of the genomic data of B. cenocepacia CEIB S5-2 revealed the presence of genes that encode enzymes implicated in glyphosate biodegradation through the two metabolic pathways reported, sarcosine and AMPA. This investigation provides novel information about the potential of species of the genus Burkholderia in the degradation of the herbicide glyphosate and its main degradation metabolite (AMPA). Furthermore, the analysis of genomic information allowed us to propose for the first time a metabolic route related to the degradation of glyphosate in this bacterial group. According to the findings of this study, B. cenocepacia CEIB S5-2 displays a great glyphosate biodegradation capability and has the potential to be implemented in glyphosate bioremediation approaches.

Assessing testicular morphofunctionality under Roundup WG® herbicide exposure in zebrafish

Glyphosate-based herbicides, like Roundup WG® (RWG) used for a range of crops, such as corn, soybean, coffee, sugarcane, rice, apple, and citrus, can reach aquatic ecosystems and impact non-target organisms like fish. Thus, the fish were exposed to three RWG concentrations plus one negative control, which represents the concentration allowed for inland Brazilian waters and concentrations found in surface water worldwide (0.0, 0.065, 0.65, and 6.5 mg a.i./L) for 7 and 15 days. Morphological analysis revealed significant alterations in the testicular structure, particularly in Sertoli cell extensions and cytoplasmic bridges between germ cells. Subcellular compartments also displayed alterations, including dilated mitochondria and the loss of electron density and autophagic vesicles. Gene transcript levels related to autophagy and steroidogenic regulation were upregulated in exposed fish. Germ cell quality was also affected, increasing ROS (reactive oxygen species) production and DNA fragmentation. The study highlighted the RWG reproductive toxicity, providing valuable insights into understanding the morphofunctional alterations in somatic and germ cells of Danio rerio. In conclusion, the environmental relevant concentrations used in this study were toxic to male somatic and germ cells, which raises a concern about the concentrations considered safe for human and animal use.

Melatonin alleviates glyphosate-induced testosterone synthesis inhibition via targeting mitochondrial function in roosters

Glyphosate (GLY) is a widely used herbicide that has been revealed to inhibit testosterone synthesis in humans and animals. Melatonin (MET) is an endogenous hormone that has been demonstrated to promote mammalian testosterone synthesis via protecting mitochondrial function. However, it remains unclear whether MET targets mitochondria to alleviate GLY-inhibited testosterone synthesis in avian. In this study, an avian model using 7-day-old rooster upon chronic exposure to GLY with the treatment of MET was designed to clarify this issue. Data first showed that GLY-induced testicular Leydig cell damage, structural damage of the seminiferous tubule, and sperm quality decrease were mitigated by MET. Transcriptomic analyses of the testicular tissues revealed the potentially critical role of mitophagy and steroid hormone biosynthesis in the process of MET counteracting GLY-induced testicular damage. Also, validation data demonstrated that the inhibition of testosterone synthesis due to GLY-induced mitochondrial dynamic imbalance and concomitant Parkin-dependent mitophagy activation is alleviated by MET. Moreover, GLY-induced oxidative stress in serum and testicular tissue were significantly reversed by MET. In summary, these findings demonstrate that MET effectively ameliorates GLY-inhibited testosterone synthesis by inhibiting mitophagy activation, which provides a promising remedy for the application of MET as a potential therapeutic agent to antagonize reproductive toxicity induced by GLY and similar contaminants.

Developmental toxicity and estrogenicity of glyphosate in zebrafish in vivo and in silico studies

As the most heavily used herbicide globally, glyphosate (GLY) has been detected in a variety of environments and has raised concerns about its ecological and health effects. There is debate as to whether GLY may disrupt the endocrine system. Here, we investigated the developmental toxicity of GLY in zebrafish based on deep learning-enabled morphometric analysis (DLMA). In addition, the estrogenic activity of GLY was assessed by endocrine disruption prediction, docking study and in vivo experiments. Results showed that exposure to environmental concentrations of GLY negatively impacted zebrafish development, causing yolk edema and pericardial edema. Endocrine disruption prediction suggested that GLY may target estrogen receptors (ER). Molecular docking analysis revealed binding of GLY to three zebrafish ER. In vivo zebrafish experiment, GLY enhanced the protein levels of ERα and the mRNA levels of cyp19a, HSD17b1, vtg1, vtg2, esr1, esr2a and esr2b. These results suggest that GLY may act as an endocrine disruptor by targeting ER, which warrants further attention for its potential toxicity to aquatic animals.

Single and Combined Effects of Chlorpyrifos and Glyphosate on the Brain of Common Carp: Based on Biochemical and Molecular Perspective

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) and glyphosate (GLY) are the most widely used organophosphate insecticide and herbicide worldwide, respectively; co-occurrence of CPF and GLY in aquatic environments occurs where they inevitably have potential hazards to fish. However, the potential mechanisms of CPF and GLY to induce toxicity have not been fully explored. To identify the adverse impacts of CPF and GLY on fish, either alone or in combination (MIX), CPF (25 μg/L) and GLY (3.5 mg/L) were set up according to an environmentally relevant concentration to expose to common carp for 21 days. After exposure, CPF and GLY decreased the activities of acetylcholinesterase and Na+/K+-ATPase, altered monoamine oxidase levels, decreased antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione S-transferase and glutamic reductase), and induced the accumulation of malondialdehyde in the carp brain. The parameters in the MIX groups had a greater impact compared to that in the CPF or GLY group, suggesting that both single and combined exposure could affect neurological signaling systems and cause oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation damage in carp brains, and that MIX exposure increases the impact of each pollutant. RNA-seq results showed that single or combined exposure to CPF and GLY induced global transcriptomic changes in fish brains, and the number of differentially expressed genes in MIX-treated carp brains were globally increased compared to either the CPF or GLY groups, suggesting that the effects of co-exposure were greater than single exposure. Further analysis results revealed that the global transcriptomic changes participated in oxidative stress, immune dysfunction, and apoptosis of fish brains, and identified that the P13k-Akt signaling pathway participates in both single and combined exposure of CPF- and GLY-induced toxicity. Taken together, our results demonstrated that the interaction of CPF and GLY might be synergic and provided novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of fish brains coping with CPF and GLY.

Minor metabolomic disturbances induced by glyphosate-isopropylammonium exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations in an aquatic turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis

The ecotoxicological and environmental impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides have received considerable attention due to their extensive use globally. However, the potential for adverse effects in cultured non-fish vertebrate species are commonly ignored. In this study, effects on growth, indicators of functional performance, gut microbial diversity, liver antioxidant responses and metabolite profiles were evaluated in soft-shelled turtle hatchlings (Pelodiscus sinensis) exposed to different concentrations of glyphosate-isopropylammonium (0, 0.02, 0.2, 2 and 20 mg/L). No significant changes in growth or functional performance (food intake, swimming speed), gut microbiota, and liver antioxidant responses (SOD and CAT activities, MDA content) were observed in exposed turtles. However, hepatic metabolite profiles revealed distinct perturbations that primarily involved amino acid metabolism in turtles exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations. Overall, our results suggested that metabolite profiles may be more sensitive than phenotypic or general physiological endpoints and gut microbiota profiling, and indicate a potential mechanism of hepatotoxicity caused by glyphosate-isopropylammonium based on untargeted metabolomics analysis. Furthermore, the toxicity of glyphosate at environmentally relevant concentrations might be relatively minor in aquatic turtle species.