Flow cytometry and gene expression profiling of immune cells of the carotid plaque and peripheral blood

Modeling human atherosclerotic lesions in the test tube: Are we there yet?

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Atherogenesis is a slow and life-long process characterized by the accumulation of lipoproteins and immune cells within the arterial wall. Atherosclerosis has been successfully modeled in animals: However, there are economic, ethical, and translational concerns when using these models. There is also growing recognition of the need for robust human-based in vitro systems that can faithfully recapitulate key aspects of human atherosclerosis. Such systems may offer advantages in terms of scalability, reproducibility, and ability to manipulate specific variables, thereby facilitating a deeper understanding of disease mechanisms and accelerating the development of targeted therapeutics. Leveraging innovative in vitro platforms holds promise in complementing traditional animal models of atherosclerosis. In the present review, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of recently developed models of atherosclerosis and propose ideas to be considered when developing future generations of models.

The MEK-ERK-Egr-1 axis and its regulation in cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. Multiple molecular and cellular processes underpinning the pathogenesis of CVD are regulated by the zinc finger transcription factor and product of an immediate-early gene, early growth response-1 (Egr-1). Egr-1 regulates multiple pro-inflammatory processes that underpin the manifestation of CVD. The activity of Egr-1 itself is influenced by a range of post-translational modifications including sumoylation, ubiquitination and acetylation. Egr-1 also undergoes phosphorylation by protein kinases, such as extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) which is itself phosphorylated by MEK. This article reviews recent progress on the MEK-ERK-Egr-1 cascade, notably regulation in conjunction with factors and agents such as TET2, TRIB2, MIAT, SphK1, cAMP, teneligliptin, cholinergic drugs, red wine and flavonoids, wogonin, febuxostat, docosahexaenoic acid and AT1R blockade. Such insights should provide new opportunity for therapeutic intervention in CVD.

Novel Therapeutical Approaches to Managing Atherosclerotic Risk

Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial vascular disease that leads to inflammation and stiffening of the arteries and decreases their elasticity due to the accumulation of calcium, small dense Low Density Lipoproteins (sdLDL), inflammatory cells, and fibrotic material. A review of studies pertaining to cardiometabolic risk factors, lipids alterations, hypolipidemic agents, nutraceuticals, hypoglycaemic drugs, atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammation was performed. There are several therapeutic strategies including Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors, inclisiran, bempedoic acid, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs), and nutraceuticals that promise improvement in the atheromatous plaque from a molecular point of view, because have actions on the exposure of the LDL-Receptor (LDL-R), on endothelial dysfunction, activation of macrophages, on lipid oxidation, formations on foam cells, and deposition extracellular lipids. Atheroma plaque reduction both as a result of LDL-Cholesterol (LDL-C) intensive lowering and reducing inflammation and other residual risk factors is an integral part of the management of atherosclerotic disease, and the use of valid therapeutic alternatives appear to be appealing avenues to solving the problem.

scFv-Anti-LDL(-)-Metal-Complex Multi-Wall Functionalized-Nanocapsules as a Promising Tool for the Prevention of Atherosclerosis Progression

Atherosclerosis can be originated from the accumulation of modified cholesterol-rich lipoproteins in the arterial wall. The electronegative LDL, LDL(-), plays an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis once this cholesterol-rich lipoprotein can be internalized by macrophages, contributing to the formation of foam cells, and provoking an immune-inflammatory response. Herein, we engineered a nanoformulation containing highly pure surface-functionalized nanocapsules using a single-chain fragment variable (scFv) reactive to LDL(-) as a ligand and assessed whether it can affect the LDL(-) uptake by primary macrophages and the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in Ldlr ^-/- mice. The engineered and optimized scFv-anti-LDL(-)-MCMN-Zn nanoformulation is internalized by human and murine macrophages in vitro by different endocytosis mechanisms. Moreover, macrophages exhibited lower LDL(-) uptake and reduced mRNA and protein levels of IL1B and MCP1 induced by LDL(-) when treated with this new nanoformulation. In a mouse model of atherosclerosis employing Ldlr ^-/- mice, intravenous administration of scFv-anti-LDL(-)-MCMN-Zn nanoformulation inhibited atherosclerosis progression without affecting vascular permeability or inducing leukocytes-endothelium interactions. Together, these findings suggest that a scFv-anti-LDL(-)-MCMN-Zn nanoformulation holds promise to be used in future preventive and therapeutic strategies for atherosclerosis.

Inflammation of carotid plaques and risk of cerebrovascular events

Carotid atherosclerotic plaques represent a risk for ischemic stroke. The data indicate that the risk for distal embolization from atherosclerotic lesions in internal carotid arteries is not related only to the degree of stenosis but also to the composition of plaques. The stability of atherosclerotic plaque depends on the thickness of the fibrous cap and plaque hemorrhage. Recent research indicated that the inflammatory activity of atherosclerotic lesions is pivotal in the progression of atherosclerotic plaques. It also promotes the development of unstable atherosclerotic lesions and is related to thromboembolic cerebrovascular complications. Inflammation destabilizes atherosclerotic plaques through the degradation of their fibrotic structure. Inflammation of atherosclerotic plaques was confirmed by histopathologic findings and levels of circulating inflammatory markers which were correlated to the intensity of the inflammation in atherosclerotic lesions. Recently, new techniques like fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (18-FDG PET) were developed for the identification of inflammation of atherosclerotic lesions in the vessel wall in vivo. Systemic inflammatory markers, particularly interleukins, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and metalloproteinases were shown to be related to the intensity of the inflammatory process in atherosclerotic lesions and the cerebrovascular events. Identification of inflamed atherosclerotic plaques may help to identify unstable atherosclerotic lesions and subjects at high risk for cerebrovascular incidents who need intensive preventive measures including anti-inflammatory medication.

Immune cells in carotid artery plaques: what can we learn from endarterectomy specimens?

INTRODUCTION

Endarterectomy specimens represent a unique opportunity to study atherosclerosis. This review aims to summarize the recent knowledge of atherogenesis from studies characterizing a cellular composition of carotid endarterectomy specimens.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A non-systematic literature review was carried out to summarize recent knowledge regarding ex vivo analysis of carotid artery plaque composition. Upon evaluation of their relevance, and elaborate forward and backward search, 95 articles were included in the review.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Despite the significant advancement of in vivo imaging techniques, the stroke prediction based on carotid artery plaque morphology is not reliable. Besides analyses of plaque morphology, present studies focus on precise characterization of the different immune cell types and elucidation of their role in plaque development. Plaque content analyses revealed the presence of various immune cells in carotid artery plaques. Presence of different immune cells subpopulations can be connected to some undesirable changes in plaque stability.

CONCLUSIONS

Since the destabilization of the atherosclerotic plaque is a multifactorial process, a combination of various methods should be used to characterize the unstable plaques more accurately. In this context, studies characterizing plaque content from a cellular point of view could elucidate some processes underlying the plaque progression. Together with morphological evaluation, these analyses could enable more precise assessment of plaque stability.

Review of serum biomarkers in carotid atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Carotid artery atherosclerotic stenosis is a preventable major cause of stroke, but there is still a need for definition of high-risk plaque in asymptomatic patients who might benefit from interventional therapies. Several image markers are recommended to characterize unstable plaques. The measurement of serum biomarkers is a promising method to assist in decision making, but the lack of robust evidence in the carotid environment burdens their potential as a standard of care. The goal of this review was to offer an updated state-of-the-art study of available serum biomarkers with clinical implications, with focus on those that may predict carotid symptom development.

METHODS

The Cochrane Library and MEDLINE databases were searched (all until September 2018) for studies on carotid plaque and serum biomarkers of atherosclerosis. Nonhuman, basic science, and histology studies were excluded, focusing on clinical studies. Selected abstracts were screened to include the most relevant articles on atherosclerotic plaque presence, progression, instability or symptom development.

RESULTS

Some well-established biomarkers for coronary disease are not relevant to carotid atherosclerosis and other inflammatory biomarkers, lipids, interleukins, homocysteine, and adipokines may be useful in quantifying carotid disease-related risk. Some serum biomarkers combined with image features may assist vascular specialists in selecting patients at high risk for stroke and in need of intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Prospective studies applying a combination of biomarkers are essential to prove clinical usefulness.

Characteristics of peripheral immune cell subsets in patients with carotid atherosclerosis undergoing carotid endarterectomy

Introduction

The role of circulating immune cells in the pathophysiology of cerebrovascular accidents is currently under debate. The aim of this study was to characterize peripheral immune cell subsets in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy (CEA).

Material and methods

We conducted a prospective observational study in a group of 124 patients with significant carotid stenosis undergoing carotid endarterectomy, both symptomatic and asymptomatic. We compared the percentages of circulating immune cells: B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, T helper, cytotoxic T, CD4+/CD8+ ratio, T regulatory, monocytes and NK cells before CEA and 6 h after the procedure.

Results

Total lymphocyte count and cytotoxic T lymphocyte count decreased 6 h after CEA in both subgroups. The NK cell level decrease was statistically significant only in the symptomatic subgroup (19.41 ±9.30 before CEA and 16.52 ±9.37 after CEA; p = 0.0044), but not in the asymptomatic subgroup (17.88 ±9.14 before CEA and 15.91 ±9.51 after CEA; p = 0.0886). The T lymphocyte level showed a statistically significant increase only in symptomatic patients (69.74 ±10.16 before CEA vs. 71.45 ±9.77 after CEA; p = 0.0462), and not in the asymptomatic subgroup (70.08 ±11.19 prior to CEA and 70.21 ±12.35; p = 0.9048). B lymphocyte, helper T lymphocyte and regulatory T (Treg) lymphocyte (CD4+/CD25+) levels showed a significant increase after CEA.

Conclusions

This is the first study to compare circulating immune cells in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy. Only the symptomatic subgroup experienced a significant decrease in the NK cell level and an increase in the T lymphocyte count after CEA. This study enriches our understanding of immune cell kinetics during carotid endarterectomy.

Glucocorticoid sensitivity and inflammatory status of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with coronary artery disease

OBJECTIVE

Mechanisms behind sustained inflammation in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) are not clarified but hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction may have a role. Here, we investigated whether inflammatory status of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was associated with altered glucocorticoid sensitivity in CAD patients.

METHODS

In 55 CAD patients and 30 controls, mRNA levels of GR-α, GR-β, NF-κB, IκBα, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 were measured in PBMCs. Suppressive effects of dexamethasone on GR-α, GR-β, NF-κB, IκBα, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 mRNA levels were assessed in PBMCs ex vivo. Salivary cortisol was repeatedly measured over 3 days.

RESULTS

GR-α mRNA levels were higher in CAD patients than in controls, 0.50 (0.38-0.59) versus 0.26 (0.18-0.37), p < .001, while GR-β mRNA levels were equally low in both groups. GR-α mRNA expression was associated with inflammatory gene expression and, also, with flatter diurnal cortisol rhythm. In both patients and controls, dexamethasone suppressed gene expression of NF-κB, IκBα, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 (p < .001). Dexamethasone also reduced GR-α mRNA levels (p < .001), while LPS increased it (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

PBMCs from CAD patients displayed an inflammatory gene expression profile. This was not explained by reduced glucocorticoid sensitivity. Instead, inflammation was associated with increased expression of GR-α mRNA, suggesting a hypocortisolemic state. Key messages   • Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) display an inflammatory gene expression profile.   • This inflammatory state cannot be explained by reduced glucocorticoid sensitivity in CAD patients.   • Instead, the inflammatory gene expression profile is associated with upregulated levels of glucocorticoid receptor-α mRNA, suggesting a hypocortisolemic state.

mRNA expression of platelet activating factor receptor (PAFR) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells is associated with albuminuria and vascular dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes

AIMS

Renal dysfunction in addition to diabetes is a serious risk factor for cardiovascular events. We hypothesized that some of the changes in gene expression in blood cells cause renal dysfunction and macrovascular disease through impaired endothelial function. This study aimed to define which changes in gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are related to renal function parameters and endothelial function of large arteries in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

We recruited 95 patients with T2DM. After matching for gender, age, BMI and HbA1c levels, the patient cohort included 42 with normoalbuminuria, 28 with microalbuminuria, and 25 with macroalbuminuria. All patients in the three groups were assessed for urinary albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), flow-mediated dilatation (FMD), and mRNA expression in PBMCs.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression of platelet activating factor receptor (PAFR) differed most markedly between the three groups and was significantly higher in the macroalbuminuric group (p < 0.001 vs. normoalbuminuric group; p < 0.05 vs. microalbuminuric group). PAFR mRNA expression significantly correlated with log transformed ACR (ρ = 0.424, p < 0.001) but not eGFR. PAFR mRNA expression also had a significant negative correlation with FMD (ρ = -0.379, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the prevalence of macrovascular complications, particularly stroke, was significantly higher in patients with elevated PAFR mRNA expression in PBMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

PAFR overexpression in PBMCs may link diabetic nephropathy to macroangiopathy through impairment of endothelial function in patients with T2DM.

Pathophysiological relevance of macrophage subsets in atherogenesis

Macrophages are highly heterogeneous and plastic cells. They were shown to play a critical role in all stages of atherogenesis, from the initiation to the necrotic core formation and plaque rupture. Lesional macrophages primarily derive from blood monocyte, but local macrophage proliferation as well as differentiation from smooth muscle cells have also been described. Within atherosclerotic plaques, macrophages rapidly respond to changes in the microenvironment, shifting between pro- (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) functional phenotypes. Furthermore, different stimuli have been associated with differentiation of newly discovered M2 subtypes: IL-4/IL-13 (M2a), immunecomplex (M2b), IL-10/glucocorticoids (M2c), and adenosine receptor agonist (M2d). More recently, additional intraplaque macrophage phenotypes were also recognized in response to CXCL4 (M4), oxidized phospholipids (Mox), haemoglobin/haptoglobin complexes (HAmac/M(Hb)), and heme (Mhem). Such macrophage polarization was described as a progression among multiple phenotypes, which reflect the activity of different transcriptional factors and the cross-talk between intracellular signalling. Finally, the distribution of macrophage subsets within different plaque areas was markedly associated with cardiovascular (CV) vulnerability. The aim of this review is to update the current knowledge on the role of macrophage subsets in atherogenesis. In addition, the molecular mechanisms underlying macrophage phenotypic shift will be summarised and discussed. Finally, the role of intraplaque macrophages as predictors of CV events and the therapeutic potential of these cells will be discussed.

Circulating CD14+ and CD14highCD16- classical monocytes are reduced in patients with signs of plaque neovascularization in the carotid artery

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Monocytes are known to play a key role in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis and contribute to plaque destabilization through the generation of signals that promote inflammation and neoangiogenesis. In humans, studies investigating the features of circulating monocytes in advanced atherosclerotic lesions are lacking.

METHODS

Patients (mean age 69 years, 56% males) with intermediate asymptomatic carotid stenosis (40-70% in diameter) were evaluated for maximal stenosis in common carotid artery, carotid bulb and internal carotid artery, overall disease burden as estimated with total plaque area (TPA), greyscale and neovascularization in 244 advanced carotid plaques. Absolute counts of circulating CD14+ monocytes, of classical (CD14^highCD16-), intermediate (CD14^highCD16+) and non-classical (CD14^lowCD16+) monocytes and HLA-DR+ median fluorescence intensity for each subset were evaluated with flow cytometry.

RESULTS

No correlation was found between monocytes and overall atherosclerotic burden, nor with high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) or interleukin-6 (IL-6). In contrast, plaque signs of neovascularization were associated with significantly lower counts of circulating CD14+ monocytes (297 versus 350 cells/mm³, p = 0.039) and of classical monocytes (255 versus 310 cells/mm³, p = 0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

Neovascularized atherosclerotic lesions selectively associate with lower blood levels of CD14+ and CD14^highCD16- monocytes independently of systemic inflammatory activity, as indicated by normal hsCRP levels. Whether the reduction of circulating CD14+ and CD14^highCD16- monocytes is due to a potential redistribution of these cell types into active lesions remains to be explored.

Early growth response-1 in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease

This article reviews the regulatory roles of the immediate-early gene product and prototypic zinc finger transcription factor, early growth response-1 in models of cardiovascular pathobiology, focusing on insights using microRNA, DNAzymes, small hairpin RNA, small interfering RNA, oligonucleotide decoy strategies and mice deficient in early growth response-1.

Hyperglycemia and Inflammatory Property of Circulating Monocytes are Associated with Inflammatory Property of Carotid Plaques in Patients Undergoing Carotid Endarterectomy

Aim: This study aims to determine the association between glucose metabolism and proinflammatory/anti-inflammatory properties of circulating monocytes or those of carotid plaques in patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy.

Methods: Clinical characteristics and expression levels of proinflammatory/anti-inflammatory markers in circulating monocytes/carotid plaques were examined in 12 patients with diabetes and 12 patients without diabetes.

Results: Circulating monocytes from patients with diabetes revealed higher tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and lower interleukin (IL)-10 expression levels compared with those from patients without diabetes, which was also observed in carotid plaques from patients with diabetes. Hyperglycemia revealed positive and negative correlations with the ratios of IL-6⁺ and IL-10⁺ cells in carotid plaques, respectively. Moreover, we determined a positive correlation between circulating monocytes and carotid plaques with respect to TNF-α and IL-6 expressions.

Conclusions: The inflammatory property of circulating monocytes was associated with that of carotid plaques. Hyperglycemia increased inflammatory properties and decreased anti-inflammatory properties of carotid plaques.

Characterization of Peripheral Immune Cell Subsets in Patients with Acute and Chronic Cerebrovascular Disease: A Case-Control Study

Immune cells (IC) play a crucial role in murine stroke pathophysiology. However, data are limited on the role of these cells in ischemic stroke in humans. We therefore aimed to characterize and compare peripheral IC subsets in patients with acute ischemic stroke/transient ischemic attack (AIS/TIA), chronic cerebrovascular disease (CCD) and healthy volunteers (HV). We conducted a case-control study of patients with AIS/TIA (n = 116) or CCD (n = 117), and HV (n = 104) who were enrolled at the University Hospital Würzburg from 2010 to 2013. We determined the expression and quantity of IC subsets in the three study groups and performed correlation analyses with demographic and clinical parameters. The quantity of several IC subsets differed between the AIS/TIA, CCD, and HV groups. Several clinical and demographic variables independently predicted the quantity of IC subsets in patients with AIS/TIA. No significant changes in the quantity of IC subsets occurred within the first three days after AIS/TIA. Overall, these findings strengthen the evidence for a pathophysiologic role of IC in human ischemic stroke and the potential use of IC-based biomarkers for the prediction of stroke risk. A comprehensive description of IC kinetics is crucial to enable the design of targeted treatment strategies.

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor α in Lipid Metabolism and Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease with deposition of excessive cholesterol in the arterial intima. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) is a nuclear receptor that can activate or inhibit the expression of many target genes by forming a heterodimer complex with the retinoid X receptor. Activation of PPARα plays an important role in the metabolism of multiple lipids, including high-density lipoprotein, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, triglyceride, phospholipid, bile acids, and fatty acids. Increased PPARα activity also mitigates atherosclerosis by blocking macrophage foam cell formation, vascular inflammation, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, plaque instability, and thrombogenicity. Clinical use of synthetic PPARα agonist fibrate improved dyslipidemia and attenuated atherosclerosis-related disease risk. This review summarizes PPARα in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis, and also highlights its potential therapeutic benefits.

Markers of inflammation associated with plaque progression and instability in patients with carotid atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the focal expression of a systemic disease affecting medium- and large-sized arteries, in which traditional cardiovascular risk factor and immune factors play a key role. It is well accepted that circulating biomarkers, including C-reactive protein and interleukin-6, reliably predict major cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction or death. However, the relevance of biomarkers of systemic inflammation to atherosclerosis progression in the carotid artery is less established. The large majority of clinical studies focused on the association between biomarkers and subclinical atherosclerosis, that is, carotid intima-media thickening (cIMT), which represents an earlier stage of the disease. The aim of this work is to review inflammatory biomarkers that were associated with a higher atherosclerotic burden, a faster disease progression, and features of plaque instability, such as inflammation or neovascularization, in patients with carotid atherosclerotic plaque, which represents an advanced stage of disease compared with cIMT. The association of biomarkers with the occurrence of cerebrovascular events, secondary to carotid plaque rupture, will also be presented. Currently, the degree of carotid artery stenosis is used to predict the risk of future cerebrovascular events in patients affected by carotid atherosclerosis. However, this strategy appears suboptimal. The identification of suitable biomarkers could provide a useful adjunctive criterion to ensure better risk stratification and optimize management.

Plasma microRNA-100 is associated with coronary plaque vulnerability

BACKGROUND

Although numerous studies have reported altered plasma levels of various microRNAs (miRNAs) in patients with cardiovascular disease, there are no data on the relationship between plasma miRNAs and vulnerable coronary plaque. In this study, we investigated whether plasma miRNAs might be a sensitive marker of coronary plaque vulnerability.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Integrated backscatter intravascular ultrasound (IB-IVUS) was performed in 32 consecutive patients with angina pectoris who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention. Three-dimensional analysis of IB-IVUS was performed to determine the percentage of lipid volume (%LV) and fibrous volume (%FV). Circulating miRNAs were measured in EDTA-plasma simultaneously obtained from the aorta and the coronary sinus (CS). Muscle-enriched (miR-133a, miR-208a, miR-499), vascular-enriched (miR-92a, miR-100, miR-126, miR-127, miR-145), and myeloid cell-enriched miRNAs (miR-155, miR-223) were measured. Plasma miR-100 was higher in the CS than in the aorta, but there were no significant differences in the levels of other miRNAs between the aorta and CS. Plasma miR-100 in the aorta was positively correlated with %LV (r=0.48, P<0.01) and negatively correlated with %FV (r=-0.41, P<0.05). Importantly, transcoronary concentration gradient of circulating miR-100 was more strongly correlated with %LV (r=0.53, P<0.01) and %FV (r=-0.56, P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

miR-100 might be released into the coronary circulation from vulnerable coronary plaques. This study provides insights into the role of miRNAs in coronary atherosclerotic disease.

Overexpression of MMP-9 and its inhibitors in blood mononuclear cells after myocardial infarction--is it associated with depressive symptomatology?

Background

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 may play a central role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. Emerging evidence also indicates an association between MMP-9 and depressive symptomatology. Here, we investigated whether expression of MMP-9 and its inhibitors in blood mononuclear cells and plasma were related to depressive symptoms in patients with a recent myocardial infarction (MI).

Methods and Results

Blood sampling was performed between 6 and 18 months after MI in 57 patients. Forty-one clinically healthy subjects were included as controls. Gene expression of MMP-9 and its main tissue inhibitors TIMP-1 and -2 were analyzed in freshly isolated or cultured blood mononuclear cells. Corresponding protein levels were assessed in cell supernatants and plasma. In post-MI patients, mRNA levels of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 and -2 were significantly higher than in controls while protein levels in cell supernatants and plasma did not differ between groups. The Center for Epidemiological Studies - Depression (CES-D) scale was used to assess depressive symptomatology. Repeated assessments during the first 18 months after MI showed significantly higher CES-D scores in patients compared with controls. However, there were no relationships between depressive mood and any of the measurements of MMP-9 or TIMPs.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that overexpression of MMP-9 and TIMPs in blood mononuclear cells and elevated depressive symptoms represent two unrelated phenomena after MI.

Signature of subclinical femoral artery atherosclerosis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells

BACKGROUND

Peripheral arterial disease is a relevant public health problem associated with increased risk of morbimortality. Most of the patients with this condition are asymptomatic. Therefore, the development of accessible biochemical markers seems to be necessary to anticipate diagnosis. Our hypothesis is that asymptomatic subjects with objectively confirmed femoral artery atherosclerosis could be distinguished from control subjects by gene expression analysis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 37 asymptomatic males over 50 years old were recruited at the University Clinic of Navarra (Spain). Nineteen participants were free from atherosclerotic vascular disease and 18 participants presented subclinical femoral artery atherosclerosis defined by means of Doppler ultrasound. PBMC were isolated from blood and the RNA extracted. A panel of atherosclerotic-related genes were evaluated by Taqman low-density array.

RESULTS

In univariate logistic regression models, we found a direct relationship between IL4, ITGAM and TLR2 expression levels in PBMC and femoral atherosclerosis, even when the models were adjusted for age and hypertension prevalence. Multivariate logistic regression models showed that elevated IL4 expression levels were intimately associated with subclinical femoral atherosclerosis after adjusting for the same potential confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

Current data suggest that gene expression in PBMC, in particular IL4 expression, could be a useful tool in the diagnosis of femoral artery atherosclerosis in asymptomatic patients. Furthermore, in patients with no differences in cardiovascular risk factors except for hypertension, the results point to the immune and inflammatory deregulation as a feature of subclinical peripheral atherosclerosis.

oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex induced macrophage differentiation to foam cell involving TLR4/NF-kappa B signal transduction pathway

Macrophage-derived foam cell formation is a hallmark of atherosclerosis. It has been reported that oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) inducing formation of foam cells and expression of inflammatory molecules are partly mediated by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. However, whether oxLDL/β2-glycoprotein I/anti-β2-glycoprotein I (oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI) complex enhanced formation of foam cells involving TLR4/NF-κB pathway or not has never been explored. In the current study, we focused on investigating the transformation of peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice into foam cells induced by the three complexes, and the involvement of TLR4 as well as its downstream signal molecule NF-κB. The results showed that treatment of macrophages with oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex could markedly increase intracellular lipid loading and expression of TLR4, phosphorylated NF-κB p65 (p-NF-κB p65), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), as well as tissue factor (TF). The oxLDL and oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex induced formation of foam cells and expression of p-NF-κB p65 were significantly reduced, while macrophages were pre-treated with TLR4 inhibitor TAK-242. Meanwhile, both TAK-242 and NF-κB inhibitor PDTC could remarkably inhibit oxLDL, oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex, as well as LPS increased MCP-1 and TF levels. Nevertheless, β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex-induced MCP-1 and TF mRNA expression were inhibited by TAK-242 rather than PDTC, although TF activity was significantly reduced by both of the inhibitors. In conclusion, our results indicate that oxLDL/β2GPI/anti-β2GPI complex could enhance the conversion of macrophages into foam cells and the process may be at least partly mediated by TLR4/NF-κB pathway, which may contribute to the accelerated development of atherosclerosis in APS.

Association between circulating leukocyte subtype counts and carotid intima-media thickness in Japanese subjects with type 2 diabetes

Background

An increased leukocyte count is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events, but the association between leukocyte subtype counts and carotid atherosclerosis in patients with diabetes has not been determined. We therefore investigated the correlation between leukocyte subtype counts and intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery (CCA-IMT) in subjects with type 2 diabetes.

Methods

This cross-sectional study involved 484 in-patients with type 2 diabetes (282 males and 202 females), who were hospitalized for glycemic control and underwent carotid ultrasonography at Kumamoto University Hospital between 2005 and 2011. Mean and maximum CCA-IMT was measured by high-resolution B-mode ultrasonography.

Results

Univariate analyses revealed that mean CCA-IMT was positively correlated with age, systolic blood pressure, brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (PWV), urinary albumin excretion and duration of diabetes, but was negatively correlated with diastolic blood pressure and fasting plasma glucose. Maximum CCA-IMT was positively and negatively correlated with the same factors as mean CCA-IMT except for fasting plasma glucose. Mean CCA-IMT was positively correlated with total leukocyte (r = 0.124, p = 0.007), monocyte (r = 0.373, p < 0.001), neutrophil (r = 0.139, p = 0.002) and eosinophil (r = 0.107, p = 0.019) counts. Maximum CCA-IMT was positively correlated with total leukocyte (r = 0.154, p < 0.001), monocyte (r = 0.398, p < 0.001), neutrophil (r = 0.152, p < 0.001) and basophil counts (r = 0.102, p = 0.027). Multiple regression analyses showed that monocyte count, age and PWV were significant and independent factors associated with mean CCA-IMT (adjusted R² = 0.239, p < 0.001), and that monocyte count, age and urinary albumin excretion were significant and independent factors associated with maximum CCA-IMT (adjusted R² = 0.277, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Monocyte counts were positively correlated with both mean CCA-IMT and maximum CCA-IMT in patients with type 2 diabetes. Monocyte count may be a useful predictor of macrovascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Trial registration

Trial registry no: UMIN000003526.