Heart-type fatty acid binding protein and high-sensitivity troponin T are myocardial damage markers that could predict adverse clinical outcomes in patients with peripheral artery disease

Growth Differentiation Factor-15 and Clinical Outcomes in Lower Extremity Artery Disease

AIM

Lower extremity artery disease (LEAD) is an increasingly common health problem that is associated with high mortality due to thrombotic and bleeding events. Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15), a stress-response cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily, is associated with cardiovascular disease and its outcomes. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of serum GDF15 levels on clinical outcomes in patients with LEAD.

METHODS

We measured serum GDF15 levels in 200 patients with LEAD before their initial endovascular therapy. The primary endpoint was the all-cause mortality rate. The secondary endpoints, on the other hand, were thrombotic and bleeding events, such as cerebral infarction, acute coronary syndrome, acute limb ischemia, and Bleeding Academic Research Consortium types 3 and 5.

RESULTS

The serum GDF15 levels increased with advancing Fontaine class. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that the high-GDF15 group (≥ 2,275 pg/mL) had higher rates of all-cause deaths and thrombotic and bleeding events than the low-GDF15 group (＜2,275 pg/mL). Multivariate Cox proportional-hazards regression analysis revealed that GDF15 was an independent predictor of all-cause mortality and thrombotic and bleeding events after adjusting for confounding risk factors. When the ABC-AF-bleeding score was substituted for GDF15, similar results were obtained.

CONCLUSION

Serum GDF15 levels were associated with all-cause mortality and thrombotic and bleeding events in patients with LEAD. Serum GDF15 is a potentially useful marker of clinical outcomes, specifically for tracking thrombotic and bleeding events in patients with LEAD.

High-sensitivity Troponin (hs-Tn) for Cardiovascular Risk Prognostication: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Chronic low-grade inflammation is involved in coronary atherosclerosis progression whereas recent research efforts suggest that preventative methods should be tailored to the "residual inflammatory risk". As such, modalities for the early identification of the risk have to be investigated.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis according to the PRISMA guidelines. Any study that presented the prognostic value of high sensitivity troponin (hs-cTn) of vascular inflammation in stable patients without known cardiac heart disease was considered to be potentially eligible. The Medline (PubMed) database was searched up to April 22, 2021. The main endpoint was the difference in c-index (Δ[c-index]) with the use of hs-cTn for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs), cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. We calculated I2 to test heterogeneity.

RESULTS

In total, 44 studies and 112,288 stable patients without known coronary heart disease were included in this meta-analysis. The mean follow-up duration of the whole cohort was 6.8 ± 1.1 years. 77,004 (68.5%) of the patients presented at low cardiovascular risk while 35,284 (31.5%) in high. The overall pooled estimate of Δ[c-index] for MACE was 1.4% (95%CI: 0.7-2.1, I2=0%) and for cardiovascular death 1.3% (95%CI: 0.3-2.3, I2=0%). Finally, the overall pooled estimate of Δ[c-index] for all-cause mortality was 3% (95%CI: 1.9-3.9, I2=86%), while high heterogeneity was observed between the studies.

CONCLUSION

The predictive usefulness of changes in hs-cTn measures in stable individuals with either high or low cardiovascular risk, demonstrates that assessing vascular inflammation in addition to clinical risk factors enhances risk prediction for cardiovascular events and allcause mortality. Further prospective studies are necessary to confirm these findings and assist clinical decision-making regarding the most optimal prevention strategy.

Cholesterol Efflux Capacity Associates with the Ankle-Brachial Index but Not All-Cause Mortality in Patients with Peripheral Artery Disease

Background: Cholesterol efflux is an important mechanism by which high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) protect against cardiovascular disease. As peripheral artery disease (PAD) is associated with high mortality rates, mainly due to cardiovascular causes, we investigated whether cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) of apolipoprotein B (apoB)-depleted plasma, a widely used surrogate of HDL function, may serve as a predictive marker for mortality in this patient population. Methods: In this prospective single-center study (median follow-up time: 9.3 years), apoB-containing lipoproteins were precipitated from plasma of 95 patients with PAD and incubated with J744-macrophages, which were loaded with radiolabeled cholesterol. CEC was defined as the fractional radiolabel released during 4 h of incubation. Results: Baseline CEC was lower in PAD patients that currently smoked (p = 0.015) and had a history of myocardial infarction (p = 0.011). Moreover, CEC showed a significant correlation with HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.003) and apolipoprotein A-I levels (p = 0.001) as well as the ankle-brachial index (ABI, p = 0.018). However, CEC did not differ between survivors and non-survivors. Neither revealed Kaplan–Meier and Cox regression analyses any significant association of CEC with all-cause mortality rates. Conclusion: Taken together, CEC is associated with ABI but does not predict all-cause mortality in patients with PAD.

Myocardial injury after aortoiliac revascularization for extensive disease: A survival analysis

BACKGROUND

This study aims to evaluate the incidence of myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery for an extensive disease pattern (TASC II type D) and to examine its prognostic value.

METHODS

This prospective study included a total of 66 consecutive patients (62 males, 4 females; mean age 62.5±8.2 years) who underwent elective revascularization for aortoiliac TASC II type D lesions in the tertiary setting between January 2013 and March 2019. The patients were scheduled for revascularization either by open surgery or endovascular approach. Cardiac troponins were routinely measured in the postoperative period. Myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery was defined as the elevation of cardiac troponin for at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit. Myocardial infarction, acute heart failure, stroke, major adverse cardiovascular events, major adverse limb events, and all-cause mortality were assessed both postoperatively and during follow-up.

RESULTS

The incidence of myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery was 25.8%. In the multivariate analysis, chronic heart failure was found to be a significant risk factor for myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery (odds ratio: 10.3; 95% confidence interval 1.00-106.8, p=0.018). At 12 months after revascularization, the diagnosis of myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery was significantly associated with myocardial infarction, stroke, major adverse cardiovascular events, major adverse limb events, and all-cause mortality. At 12 months after revascularization, the diagnosis of myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery was significantly associated with myocardial infarction (log-rank p=0.002), stroke (log-rank p=0.007), major adverse cardiovascular events (log-rank p=0.000), major adverse limb events (log-rank p=0.007), and all-causemortality (log-rank p=0.000).

CONCLUSION

Our study results suggest that myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery plays a role as a predictor of significant cardiovascular comorbidities and mortality after complex aortoiliac revascularization. The presence of chronic heart failure is also associated with a higher incidence of myocardial injury after aortoiliac TASC II type D revascularization. Therefore, preemptive strategies should be adopted to identify and treat these patients.

Cardiac biomarkers but not measures of vascular atherosclerosis predict mortality in patients with peripheral artery disease

BACKGROUND

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) becomes more prevalent with advancing age and is associated with elevated risk of cardiovascular events and shortened life expectancy. We investigated the prognostic performance of cardiac and vascular biomarkers in a cohort of PAD patients.

METHODS

A total of 95 PAD patients were enrolled (mean age 68 years, range 47 to 86 years, 73 males). Carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT), ankle brachial index (ABI), high sensitive cardiac troponin T, and N-terminal pro-B-type Natriuretic Peptide (NT-proBNP) were measured.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up time of 9.5 years, 44 patients died and 51 patients survived. Upon Kaplan-Meier survival analysis hs-TnT (P < .001) or NT-proBNP levels (P < .001) above the median but not cIMT above the median (P = .488) or ABI below the median (P < .436)were associated with reduced survival rate. Upon univariate cox regression and after adjustment for age, gender, prior cerebral artery disease, and diabetes mellitus only the association between hs-cTnT and mortality remained significant (HR 1.93, 95% CI 1.33-2.79, P < .001). In receiver operating curve analysis hs-cTnT (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.67-0.87, P < .001) NT-proBNP (AUC: 0.74, 95% CI: 0.64-0.84, P < .001) as well as hs-cTnT, and NT-proBNP combined (AUC: 0.79, 95% CI: 0.69-0.88, P < .001) were superior to cIMT (AUC: 0.64, 95%, CI: 0.53-0.76, P = .022) and ABI (AUC: 0.57, 95% CI: 0.44-0.68, P = .313) in discriminating risk for mortality.

CONCLUSION

hs-cTnT and NT-proBNP should be taken into account for prognosis of patients with PAD.

Central and peripheral pulse wave velocity and subclinical myocardial stress and damage in older adults

Background

Arterial stiffness independently predicts cardiovascular disease. However, few studies have evaluated the associations of central and peripheral pulse wave velocity (PWV) with biomarkers of both myocardial stress (natriuretic peptide [NT-proBNP]) and damage (high-sensitivity cardiac troponin-T [hs-cTnT]) among persons without cardiac disease.

Methods

We examined 3,348 participants (67–90 years) without prevalent cardiac disease in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study (2011–13). The cross-sectional associations of PWV quartiles for central arterial segments (carotid-femoral, heart-carotid, heart-femoral) and peripheral artery (femoral-ankle) with NT-proBNP and hs-cTnT were evaluated accounting for potential confounders.

Results

Most PWV measures demonstrated J- or U-shaped associations with the two cardiac biomarkers. The highest (Q4) vs. second lowest (Q2) quartile of central PWV measures (carotid-femoral, heart-carotid, heart-femoral PWV) were associated with higher levels of NT-proBNP independently of demographic characteristics. The associations were less evident for hs-cTnT. These associations were attenuated after adjusting for traditional cardiovascular risk factors, but the heart-carotid PWV-NT-proBNP relationship remained borderline significant (difference in log-NT-proBNP = 0.08 [-0.01, 0.17] in Q4 vs. Q2, p = 0.07). Peripheral PWV demonstrated inverse associations. Higher values of NT-proBNP were seen in the lowest vs. second lowest quartile of all PWV measures.

Conclusions

Central stiffness measures showed stronger associations with cardiac biomarkers (particularly NT-proBNP) than peripheral measures among older adults without cardiac disease. Our findings are consistent with the concept of ventricular-vascular coupling and suggest that central rather than peripheral arterial hemodynamics are more closely related to myocardial stress rather than damage.

Circulating Surfactant Protein-D Is Associated With Clinical Outcomes in Peripheral Artery Disease Patients Following Endovascular Therapy

BACKGROUND

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease and death. Surfactant protein-D (SP-D) is a 43-kDa protein secreted from type II pneumocytes in the lungs. Recent studies have demonstrated that circulating SP-D plays a key role in the development of atherosclerosis and is related to clinical outcomes in patients with ischemic heart disease. However, it remains unclear whether circulating SP-D is associated with clinical outcomes in patients with PAD.Methods and Results:We enrolled 364 patients with PAD who underwent endovascular therapy. We measured serum levels of SP-D and Krebs von den Lungen-6 (KL-6). During a median follow-up period of 974 days, there were 69 major adverse cardiovascular and leg events (MACLE), including 48 major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated that patients with high SP-D (≥110 ng/mL) had higher rates of MACE and MACLE than those with low SP-D. Multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression analysis demonstrated that SP-D, but not KL-6, was an independent predictor of MACE and MACLE. The addition of SP-D to known risk factors significantly improved the C index and net reclassification index. The circulating SP-D level was affected by sex, diabetes mellitus, and cilostazol prescription.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating SP-D was associated with clinical outcomes in patients with PAD, suggesting that it may be a new therapeutic target in these patients.

Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein in cardiovascular disease: A systemic review

Fatty acid-binding proteins, whose clinical applications have been studied, are a family of proteins that reflect tissue injury. Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) is a marker of ongoing myocardial damage and useful for early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). In the past decade, compared to other cardiac enzymes, H-FABP has shown more promise as an early detection marker for AMI. However, the role of H-FABP is being re-examined due to recent refinement in the search for newer biomarkers, and greater understanding of the role of high-sensitivity troponin. We discuss the current role of H-FABP as an early marker for AMI in the era of high sensitive troponin. H-FABP is highlighted as a prognostic marker for a broad spectrum of fatal diseases, viz., AMI, heart failure, arrhythmia, and pulmonary embolism that could be associated with poor clinical outcomes. Because the cut-off value of what constitutes an abnormal H-FABP potentially differs for each cardiovascular event and depends on the clinical setting, an optimal cut-off value has not been clearly established. Of note, several factors such as age, gender, and cardiovascular risk factors, which affect H-FABP levels need to be considered in this context. In this review, we discuss the clinical applications of H-FABP as a prognostic marker in various clinical settings.

Renal tubular damage is associated with poor clinical outcome in patients with peripheral artery disease who underwent endovascular therapy

BACKGROUND

Kidney dysfunction is associated with adverse outcome in patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD). Renal tubulointerstitial damage (RTD) is another type of kidney dysfunction from glomerular damage. RTD is reported to be a risk for future cardiac event in patients with heart disease. However, it remains to be determined whether RTD is predictive of poor clinical outcome in patients with PAD.

METHODS AND RESULTS

RTD markers (urinary N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamidase; NAG and urinary β-2 microglobulin to creatinine ratio) and Glomerular damage markers (cystatin C-based estimated glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria, and microalbuminuria) were measured in 265 consecutive PAD patients who underwent endovascular therapy. Patients were prospectively followed for a median length of 804days, with end points of major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (MACCE). Overall, 73% of patients exhibited excess urinary NAG excretion, and values were higher in patients with critical limb ischemia. A multivariate Cox proportional hazard analysis revealed that NAG was an independent predictor of MACCE. When patients were divided according to NAG level, Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated that the third tertile was associated with the greatest risk for MACCE. The C index in NAG was the greatest among kidney dysfunction markers. Moreover, the net reclassification index was improved by the addition of NAG to basic predictors including glomerular damage markers.

CONCLUSION

RTD is common and associated with disease severity and clinical outcome in patients with PAD, indicating that it could be the additional clinical information to glomerular damage in patients with PAD.

Cystatin C-based eGFR is a superior prognostic parameter to creatinine-based eGFR in post-endovascular therapy peripheral artery disease patients

BACKGROUND

Kidney dysfunction is reportedly associated with adverse outcome in patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD). Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), a recently popularized index for assessing kidney function, is calculated using serum creatinine or cystatin C. Compared with creatinine-based eGFR (eGFRcr), cystatin C-based eGFR (eGFRcys) is less affected by age, gender, and muscle mass. We hypothesized that eGFRcys is a feasible prognostic biomarker despite muscle sarcopenia in patients with PAD.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We calculated both eGFRcr and eGFRcys according to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guideline in 234 PAD patients who underwent endovascular therapy. Patients were prospectively followed during a median follow-up period of 964 days for the endpoint of major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (MACCE). On multivariate Cox proportional hazard analysis eGFRcys, but not eGFRcr, was an independent predictor of MACCE. The C index was larger for eGFRcys than eGFRcr (0.69 vs. 0.57, P=0.0006). On Kaplan-Meier analysis the incidence of MACCE was increased with advancing chronic kidney disease stage based on eGFRcys, but not on eGFRcr, in patients with PAD. Net reclassification index was improved with the addition of eGFRcys to basic predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with eGFRcr, eGFRcys may be a more reliable biomarker for MACCE and patient risk stratification.