General and specific lipid-protein interactions in Na,K-ATPase

Unveiling the role of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump: neurodegenerative mechanisms and therapeutic horizons

Sodium and potassium-activated adenosine 5'-triphosphatase (Na+/K+-ATPase) is a pivotal plasma membrane enzyme involved in neuronal activity and cellular homeostasis. The dysregulation of these enzymes has been implicated in a spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, and neurological problems like epilepsy. A hallmark of these disorders is the gradual loss of neuronal integrity and function, often exacerbated by protein accumulation within brain cells. This review delves into the multifaceted role of Na+/K+-ATPase dysfunction in driving oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation, contributing to synaptic and neuronal damage. Emerging therapeutic strategies, such as gene therapy and developing isoform-specific enzyme modulators, offer promising avenues for targeted interventions. Furthermore, this review highlights innovative research directions, including the role of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in synaptic plasticity, the identification of endogenous regulators, and its contribution to neuroinflammatory pathways. Personalized medicine and advanced gene-editing technologies are positioned as transformative tools for crafting safer and more precise therapies tailored to individual patients. This comprehensive exploration underscores the enzyme's therapeutic potential and sets the stage for developing novel targeted strategies to mitigate the burden of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase-linked neurological disorders.

Historical View and Some Unsolved Problems in Red Blood Cell Membrane Research

The article provides a comprehensive overview of biological membrane lipid composition and distribution and ion transport processes, focusing particularly on red blood cells (RBCs). It begins with a historical perspective, detailing the introduction of the terms 'cell' and 'membrane' in biological sciences, and the development of the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. Early findings on ion transport highlighted the non-equilibrium distribution of Na+ and K+ across cell membranes, leading to the discovery of the Na+/K+ pump. The article delves into the lipid composition of RBC membranes, emphasising the roles of various lipids, including cardiolipin, and the concept of lipid rafts. These rafts, enriched with sphingolipids and cholesterol, play crucial roles in cellular processes. Variations in RBC shapes are discussed, with biophysical theories explaining transformations and pathological conditions affecting RBC morphology, such as sickle cell anaemia. Na+ and K+ transporters in RBC membranes are explored, highlighting the almost ubiquitous presence of the Na+/K+ pump (absent in Carnivora RBCs) and various ion channels, including the Gárdos and Piezo1 channels. The article notes species-specific differences in ion transport mechanisms and the activation or suppression of transporters during RBC maturation. The mechanism of residual ion transport is examined, questioning whether a Na+(K+)/H+ antiporter exists in the human RBC membrane. Residual ion fluxes are mediated by this antiporter, influenced by the fatty acid composition of the RBC membrane. The outlook section underscores the need for further research to fully understand the complexities of RBC membrane structure and function, suggesting that many questions remain unanswered despite significant advances.

The role of interplay between the plant plasma membrane H+-ATPase and its lipid environment

The mechanisms behind the regulation of plasma membrane (PM) P-type H+-ATPase in plant cells mediated by lipid-protein interactions and lateral heterogeneity of the plasma membrane are discussed. This review will focus on 1) the structural organization and mechanisms of the catalytic cycle of the enzyme, 2) phosphorylation as the primary mechanism of pump regulation; 3) the possible role of lateral heterogeneity of the plasma membrane in this process, as well as 4) the role of lipids in the H+-ATPase biosynthesis and its delivery to the plasma membrane. In addition, 5) the potential role of membrane lipids in the H+-ATPase co-localisation with secondary active transporters is speculated.

Association of Plasma Metal Levels with Outcomes of Assisted Reproduction in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

The objective of this study is to explore the correlation of metal levels with assisted reproductive technology (ART) outcomes in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) patients. The individuals were recruited who met the research criteria, only tubal factor or male infertility served as the control group (n = 40) and patient group was PCOS patients (n = 35). Individuals (n = 75) were divided into PCOS group (n = 35) and control group (n = 40). The normal body mass index (BMI) group (control) includes women with BMI < 25 kg/m2 in PCOS group (n = 24) and control group (n = 33), and BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 in PCOS group (n = 11) and control group (n = 7). We performed an analysis of insulin resistance (IR) (n = 15) group and without insulin resistance (NIR) group (n = 20) in PCOS patient and control patients. Comparing difference demographic data, ART outcomes and the metal levels in every group respectively, the correlation of metal levels and ART outcomes in control participants and PCOS patients were analyzed by the Spearman correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression model was used to examine the association between the concentration of 19 metals and ART outcomes in PCOS group and control group. Plasma manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca)/Mg ratio, and Cu/zinc (Zn) ratio levels in PCOS patients were higher than that in control, while Zn and Ca levels were lower in PCOS patients than that in control. The Mg levels had a positive connection with the number of eggs recovered, and the iron (Fe) levels were positively associated with the number of transplanted embryos in PCOS-IR. In PCOS-NIR, Mn levels positively correlated with the number of follicles and the number of good embryos. Silver (Ag) levels were negatively correlated with the number of follicles, and aluminum (Al) levels were negatively related with the normal fertilization and the number of good embryos. The Spearman analysis in PCOS-BMI ≥ 25 group exhibited that nickel (Ni) levels were negatively associated with the number of follicles. The plasma metal levels seem to affect the clinical manifestations and in vitro fertilization outcomes in assisted reproduction.

Effect of Cations on ATP Binding to the N-domain of Na+, K+-ATPase

The nucleotide-binding domain (N-domain) of the Na+, K+-ATPase (NKA) is physicochemically characterized by a high content of Glu and Asp residues, resulting in a low isoelectric point (pI = 5.0). Acidic proteins are known to interact with cations. The analysis in silico revealed potential cation interaction sites in the NKA N-domain structure. The interaction with cations was tested in vitro by using a recombinant NKA N-domain. The N-domain contains two Trp residues at the protein surface, as determined by acrylamide-mediated fluorescence quenching, that are useful for structural studies through fluorescence changes. Intrinsic fluorescence of the N-domain was decreased by the presence of cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+) indicating an effect on the protein structure. ATP binding also decreased the N-domain intrinsic fluorescence, which allowed nucleotide affinity determination. In the presence of cations, the N-domain affinity for ATP was increased. Molecular docking of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) with the N-domain showed two binding modes with the isothiocyanate group located 5-6 Å close to Lys485 and Lys506 in the nucleotide-binding site. The presence of ATP prevented the FITC covalent labeling of the N-domain demonstrating the competitive behavior for the binding site. It is proposed that cations interact with the N-domain structure and thereby modulate nucleotide (ATP) affinity and possibly affecting NKA catalysis.

Uncovering the multifaceted properties of 6-pentyl-alpha-pyrone for control of plant pathogens

Some volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by microorganisms have the ability to inhibit the growth and development of plant pathogens, induce the activation of plant defenses, and promote plant growth. Among them, 6-pentyl-alpha-pyrone (6-PP), a ketone produced by Trichoderma fungi, has emerged as a focal point of interest. 6-PP has been isolated and characterized from thirteen Trichoderma species and is the main VOC produced, often accounting for >50% of the total VOCs emitted. This review examines abiotic and biotic interactions regulating the production of 6-PP by Trichoderma, and the known effects of 6-PP on plant pathogens through direct and indirect mechanisms including induced systemic resistance. While there are many reports of 6-PP activity against plant pathogens, the vast majority have been from laboratory studies involving only 6-PP and the pathogen, rather than glasshouse or field studies including a host plant in the system. Biopesticides based on 6-PP may well provide an eco-friendly, sustainable management tool for future agricultural production. However, before this can happen, challenges including demonstrating disease control efficacy in the field, developing efficient delivery systems, and determining cost-effective application rates must be overcome before 6-PP's potential for pathogen control can be turned into reality.

Lipid-Mediated Mechanisms of Thermal Adaptation and Thermoregulatory Behavior in Animals

Temperature affects a variety of cellular processes because the molecular motion of cellular constituents and the rate of biochemical reactions are sensitive to temperature changes. Thus, the adaptation to temperature is necessary to maintain cellular functions during temperature fluctuation, particularly in poikilothermic organisms. For a wide range of organisms, cellular lipid molecules play a pivotal role during thermal adaptation. Temperature changes affect the physicochemical properties of lipid molecules, resulting in the alteration of cell membrane-related functions and energy metabolism. Since the chemical structures of lipid molecules determine their physicochemical properties and cellular functions, cellular lipids, particularly fatty acid-containing lipid molecules, are remodeled as a thermal adaptation response to compensate for the effects of temperature change. In this chapter, we first introduce the structure and biosynthetic pathway of fatty acid-containing lipid molecules, such as phospholipid and triacylglycerol, followed by a description of the cellular lipid-mediated mechanisms of thermal adaptation and thermoregulatory behavior in animals.

Illuminating the structural basis of human neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) antagonism through classical all-atoms molecular dynamics simulations

Advances in structural biology have bestowed insights into the pleiotropic effects of neurokinin 1 receptors (NK1R) in diverse patho-physiological processes, thereby highlighting the potential therapeutic value of antagonists directed against NK1R. Herein, we investigate the mode of antagonist recognition to discern the obscure atomic facets germane for the function and molecular determinants of NK1R. To commence discernment of potent antagonists and the conformational changes in NK1R, induced upon antagonist binding, state-of-the-art classical all-atoms molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in lipid mimetic bilayers have been utilized. MD simulations of structural ensembles reveals the involvement of TM5 and TM6 in tight anchoring of antagonists through a network of interhelical hydrogen-bonds, while, the extracellular loop 2 (ECL2) governs the overall size and nature of the pocket, thereby modulating NK1R. Consistent comparison between experiments and MD simulation results discerns the predominant role of TM3, TM4, and TM6 in lipid-NK1R interaction. Correlation between hydrophobic index and helicity of TM domains elucidates their importance in maintaining the structural stability in addition to regulating NK1R antagonism. Taken together, we anticipate that our computational study marks a comprehensive structural basis of NK1R antagonism in lipid bilayers, which may facilitate designing of new therapeutics against associated diseases targeting human neurokinin receptors.

Dynamic lipid interactions in the plasma membrane Na+,K+-ATPase

The function of ion-transporting Na+,K+-ATPases depends on the surrounding lipid environment in biological membranes. Two established lipid-interaction sites A and B within the transmembrane domain have been observed to induce protein activation and stabilization, respectively. In addition, lipid-mediated inhibition has been assigned to a site C, but with the exact location not experimentally confirmed. Also, possible effects on lipid interactions by disease mutants dwelling in the membrane-protein interface remain relatively uncharacterized. We simulated human Na+,K+-ATPase α1β1FXYD homology models in E1 and E2 states in an asymmetric, multicomponent plasma membrane to determine both wild-type and disease mutant lipid-protein interactions. The simulated wild-type lipid interactions at the established sites A and B were in agreement with experimental results thereby confirming the membrane-protein model system. The less well-characterized, proposed inhibitory site C was dominated by lipids lacking inhibitory properties. Instead, two sites hosting inhibitory lipids were identified at the extracellular side and also a cytoplasmic CHL-binding site that provide putative alternative locations of Na+,K+-ATPase inhibition. Three disease mutations, Leu302Arg, Glu840Arg and Met859Arg resided in the lipid-protein interface and caused drastic changes in the lipid interactions. The simulation results show that lipid interactions to the human Na+,K+-ATPase α1β1FXYD protein in the plasma membrane are highly state-dependent and can be disturbed by disease mutations located in the lipid interface, which can open up for new venues to understand genetic disorders.

Activity of Na+/K+- and Ca2+-ATPases in human erythrocyte membranes: Protocol improvement, relation to cholesterol content, and effects of polyphenols

It is known that the activities of Na+/K+- and Ca2+-ATPases in the plasma membrane with an excess of cholesterol are compromised. Our main goal was to find out whether quercetin, resveratrol, or caffeic acid, in the nano- and low micromolar concentration ranges, can improve the ATPase activity in human erythrocyte membranes with excess cholesterol. These molecules belong to different chemical classes of polyphenols and are widely present in plant foods. Also, due to some variations in the protocol for determining the ATPase activity, we first analyzed several key parameters of the protocol to improve the accuracy of the results. The activities of Na+/K+- and Ca2+-ATPases were reduced in membranes with moderate and high cholesterol levels compared to membranes from normocholesterolemic subjects (p < 0.01). All three polyphenols affected the ATPase activity in a similar biphasic manner. Namely, the ATPase activity gradually increased with increasing polyphenol concentration up to 80-200 nM, and then gradually decreased with further increase in polyphenol concentration. Moreover, the stimulating effect of the polyphenols was highest in membranes with high cholesterol content, making ATPase activity values close/equal to those in normal cholesterol membranes. In other words, quercetin, resveratrol, and caffeic acid at nanomolar concentrations were able to improve/restore the functioning of Na+/K+- and Ca2+-ATPases in erythrocyte membranes with high cholesterol levels. This suggests a common membrane-mediated mechanism of action for these polyphenols, related to the content of membrane cholesterol.

Anionic Phospholipids Stimulate the Proton Pumping Activity of the Plant Plasma Membrane P-Type H+-ATPase

The activity of membrane proteins depends strongly on the surrounding lipid environment. Here, we characterize the lipid stimulation of the plant plasma membrane H+-ATPase Arabidopsis thaliana H+-ATPase isoform 2 (AHA2) upon purification and reconstitution into liposomes of defined lipid compositions. We show that the proton pumping activity of AHA2 is stimulated by anionic phospholipids, especially by phosphatidylserine. This activation was independent of the cytoplasmic C-terminal regulatory domain of the pump. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed several preferential contact sites for anionic phospholipids in the transmembrane domain of AHA2. These contact sites are partially conserved in functionally different P-type ATPases from different organisms, suggesting a general regulation mechanism by the membrane lipid environment. Our findings highlight the fact that anionic lipids play an important role in the control of H+-ATPase activity.

Lipid peroxidation increases membrane tension, Piezo1 gating, and cation permeability to execute ferroptosis

The ongoing metabolic and microbicidal pathways that support and protect cellular life generate potentially damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS). To counteract damage, cells express peroxidases, which are antioxidant enzymes that catalyze the reduction of oxidized biomolecules. Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is the major hydroperoxidase specifically responsible for reducing lipid peroxides; this homeostatic mechanism is essential, and its inhibition causes a unique type of lytic cell death, ferroptosis. The mechanism(s) that lead to cell lysis in ferroptosis, however, are unclear. We report that the lipid peroxides formed during ferroptosis accumulate preferentially at the plasma membrane. Oxidation of surface membrane lipids increased tension on the plasma membrane and led to the activation of Piezo1 and TRP channels. Oxidized membranes thus became permeable to cations, ultimately leading to the gain of cellular Na+ and Ca2+ concomitant with loss of K+. These effects were reduced by deletion of Piezo1 and completely inhibited by blocking cation channel conductance with ruthenium red or 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB). We also found that the oxidation of lipids depressed the activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase, exacerbating the dissipation of monovalent cation gradients. Preventing the changes in cation content attenuated ferroptosis. Altogether, our study establishes that increased membrane permeability to cations is a critical step in the execution of ferroptosis and identifies Piezo1, TRP channels, and the Na+/K+-ATPase as targets/effectors of this type of cell death.

Sterol Structural Features' Impact on the Spontaneous Membrane Insertion of CLIC1 into Artificial Lipid Membranes

Background: A membrane protein interaction with lipids shows distinct specificity in terms of the sterol structure. The structure of the sterol's polar headgroup, steroidal rings, and aliphatic side chains have all been shown to influence protein membrane interactions, including the initial binding and subsequent oligomerization to form functional channels. Previous studies have provided some insights into the regulatory role that cholesterol plays in the spontaneous membrane insertion of the chloride intracellular ion channel protein, CLIC1. However, the manner in which cholesterol interacts with CLIC1 is yet largely unknown. Method: In this study, the CLIC1 interaction with different lipid:sterol monolayers was studied using the Langmuir trough and neutron reflectometry in order to investigate the structural features of cholesterol essential for the spontaneous membrane insertion of the CLIC1 protein. Molecular docking simulations were also performed to study the binding affinities between CLIC1 and the different sterol molecules. Results: This study, for the first time, highlights the vital role of the free sterol 3β-OH group as an essential structural requirement for the interaction of CLIC1 with cholesterol. Furthermore, the presence of additional hydroxyl groups, methylation of the sterol skeleton, and the structure of the sterol alkyl side chain have also been shown to modulate the magnitude of CLIC1 interaction with sterols and hence their spontaneous membrane insertion. This study also reports the ability of CLIC1 to interact with other naturally existing sterol molecules. General Significance: Like the sterol molecules, CLIC proteins are evolutionarily conserved with almost all vertebrates expressing six CLIC proteins (CLIC1-6), and CLIC-like proteins are also present in invertebrates and have also been reported in plants. This discovery of CLIC1 protein interaction with other natural sterols and the sterol structural requirements for CLIC membrane insertion provide key information to explore the feasibility of exploiting these properties for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes.

Docking cholesterol to integral membrane proteins with Rosetta

Lipid molecules such as cholesterol interact with the surface of integral membrane proteins (IMP) in a mode different from drug-like molecules in a protein binding pocket. These differences are due to the lipid molecule's shape, the membrane's hydrophobic environment, and the lipid's orientation in the membrane. We can use the recent increase in experimental structures in complex with cholesterol to understand protein-cholesterol interactions. We developed the RosettaCholesterol protocol consisting of (1) a prediction phase using an energy grid to sample and score native-like binding poses and (2) a specificity filter to calculate the likelihood that a cholesterol interaction site may be specific. We used a multi-pronged benchmark (self-dock, flip-dock, cross-dock, and global-dock) of protein-cholesterol complexes to validate our method. RosettaCholesterol improved sampling and scoring of native poses over the standard RosettaLigand baseline method in 91% of cases and performs better regardless of benchmark complexity. On the β2AR, our method found one likely-specific site, which is described in the literature. The RosettaCholesterol protocol quantifies cholesterol binding site specificity. Our approach provides a starting point for high-throughput modeling and prediction of cholesterol binding sites for further experimental validation.

Effect of Anionic Lipids on Mammalian Plasma Cell Membrane Properties

The effect of lipid composition on models of the inner leaflet of mammalian cell membranes has been investigated. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and X-ray and neutron reflectivity have been used to characterize lipid packing and solvation, while electrochemical and infrared spectroscopic methods have been employed to probe phase behavior in an applied electric field. Introducing a small quantity of the anionic lipid dimyristoylphosphatidylserine (DMPS) into bilayers of zwitterionic dimyristoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE) results in a significant change in the bilayer response to an applied field: the tilt of the hydrocarbon chains increases before returning to the original tilt angle on detachment of the bilayer. Equimolar mixtures, with slightly closer chain packing, exhibit a similar but weaker response. The latter also tend to incorporate more solvent during this electrochemical phase transition, at levels similar to those of pure DMPS. Reflectivity measurements reveal greater solvation of lipid layers for DMPS > 30 mol %, matching the greater propensity for DMPS-rich bilayers to incorporate water. Taken together, the data indicate that the range of 10-35 mol % DMPS provides optimum bilayer properties (in flexibility and function as a barrier), which may explain why the DMPS content of cell membranes tends to be found within this range.

The anti-tumor drug 2-hydroxyoleic acid regulates the oncogenic potassium channel Kv10.1

Background

2-hydroxyoleic acid (2OHOA) is a synthetic fatty acid with antitumor properties that alters membrane composition and structure, which in turn influences the functioning of membrane proteins and cell signaling. In this study, we propose a novel antitumoral mechanism of 2OHOA accomplished through the regulation of Kv10.1 channels. We evaluated the effects of 2OHOA on Kv10.1 channels expressed in HEK-293 cells by using electrophysiological techniques and a cell proliferation assay.

Results

2OHOA increased Kv10.1 channel currents in a voltage-dependent manner, shifted its conductance-voltage relationship towards negative potentials, and accelerated its activation kinetics. Moreover, 2OHOA reduced proliferation of cells that exogenously (HEK-293) and endogenously (MCF-7) expressed Kv10.1 channels. It is worth noting that the antiproliferative effect of 2OHOA was maintained in HEK-293 cells expressing a non-conducting mutant of Kv10.1 channel (Kv10.1-F456A), while it did not affect HEK-293 cells not expressing Kv10.1 channels, suggesting that 2OHOA interferes with a non-conducting function of Kv10.1 channels involved in cell proliferation. Finally, we found that 2OHOA can act synergistically with astemizole, a Kv10.1 channel blocker, to decrease cell proliferation more efficiently.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that 2OHOA decreases cell proliferation, at least in part, by regulating Kv10.1 channels.

Insulin, dibutyryl-cAMP, and glucose modulate expression of patatin-like domain containing protein 7 in cultured human myotubes

Expression of patatin-like phospholipase domain containing protein 7 (PNPLA7), also known as neuropathy target esterase-related esterase (NRE), a lysophospholipase, increases with fasting and decreases with feeding in mouse skeletal muscle, indicating it is regulated by insulin, counterregulatory hormones, such as glucocorticoids and catecholamines, and/or nutrients. In cultured mouse adipocytes insulin reduces Pnpla7 expression, underscoring the possibility that insulin regulates PNPLA7 in skeletal muscle. The first aim of this study was to establish whether PNPLA7 is functionally expressed in cultured human skeletal muscle cells. The second aim was to determine whether PNPLA7 is regulated by insulin, glucocorticoids, cAMP/protein kinase A pathway, and/or glucose. Cultured human skeletal muscle cells expressed PNPLA7 mRNA and protein. Gene silencing of PNPLA7 in myoblasts reduced the phosphorylation of 70 kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase and ribosomal protein S6 as well as the abundance of α1-subunit of Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase, indirectly suggesting that PNPLA7 is functionally important. In myotubes, insulin suppressed PNPLA7 mRNA at 1 g/L glucose, but not at low (0.5 g/L) or high (4.5 g/L) concentrations. Treatment with synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone and activator of adenylyl cyclase forskolin had no effect on PNPLA7 regardless of glucose concentration, while dibutyryl-cAMP, a cell-permeable cAMP analogue, suppressed PNPLA7 mRNA at 4.5 g/L glucose. The abundance of PNPLA7 protein correlated inversely with the glucose concentrations. Collectively, our results highlight that PNPLA7 in human myotubes is regulated by metabolic signals, implicating a role for PNPLA7 in skeletal muscle energy metabolism.

Structural–functional aberrations of erythrocytes in the northern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rutilus Pallas, 1779) that inhabits the zone of influence of the copper smelter (the Middle Ural)

Red blood cell parameters were assessed in a natural population of the northern red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rutilus Pallas, 1779) in the zone of influence of the Kirovgrad Copper Smelter along a gradient of pollution by heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb) at three catching sites (polluted [Imp] and controls [Bg-1, and Bg-2]). The difference of the smelter area (Imp group of voles) from both background groups (Bg-1 and Bg-2) was proven by means of a set of 13 parameters in univariate and multivariate analyses. Among the detected erythrocyte disturbances, we noted the following: a decrease in activities of Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT); an increase in the concentration of lipid peroxidation products, in osmotic fragility, and in intravascular hemolysis; interruption of carbohydrate metabolism; and lowered oxygen-carrying capacity. A higher load of Cd (p = 0.0009) and possibly Pb (p = 0.054) in the Imp animals was confirmed by quantitation of heavy metals in the liver. Most erythrocyte parameters (11 out of 13) covaried with individual Cd load by obeying a semilogarithmic dependence; such a relation was not found for Cu, Zn, and Pb. A decrease in the growth rate of structural and functional erythrocyte aberrations ("resistance improvement") with increasing cadmium load is probably due to compensatory enhancement of the synthesis of metallothioneins in the liver and kidneys and hence a greater proportion of Cd bound to metallothioneins. Problems of differences/similarities in Cd-associated reactivity among the animals are discussed too, taking into account the catching sites (polluted [Imp] and controls [Bg-1, and Bg-2]) and reproductive-age (i.e., immature underyearlings, mature underyearlings, and individuals that overwintered). The persistence of differences in erythrocyte status observed by us between the Imp and background groups after normalization to Cd load may be due to the action of other (unexamined) adverse factors and calls for further ecotoxicological studies.

Shedding Light on the Role of Na,K-ATPase as a Phosphatase during Matrix-Vesicle-Mediated Mineralization

Matrix vesicles (MVs) contain the whole machinery necessary to initiate apatite formation in their lumen. We suspected that, in addition to tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP), Na,K,-ATPase (NKA) could be involved in supplying phopshate (P_i) in the early stages of MV-mediated mineralization. MVs were extracted from the growth plate cartilage of chicken embryos. Their average mean diameters were determined by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) (212 ± 19 nm) and by Atomic Force Microcopy (AFM) (180 ± 85 nm). The MVs had a specific activity for TNAP of 9.2 ± 4.6 U·mg^-1 confirming that the MVs were mineralization competent. The ability to hydrolyze ATP was assayed by a colorimetric method and by ³¹P NMR with and without Levamisole and SBI-425 (two TNAP inhibitors), ouabain (an NKA inhibitor), and ARL-67156 (an NTPDase1, NTPDase3 and Ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (NPP1) competitive inhibitor). The mineralization profile served to monitor the formation of precipitated calcium phosphate complexes, while IR spectroscopy allowed the identification of apatite. Proteoliposomes containing NKA with either dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) or a mixture of 1:1 of DPPC and dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE) served to verify if the proteoliposomes were able to initiate mineral formation. Around 69-72% of the total ATP hydrolysis by MVs was inhibited by 5 mM Levamisole, which indicated that TNAP was the main enzyme hydrolyzing ATP. The addition of 0.1 mM of ARL-67156 inhibited 8-13.7% of the total ATP hydrolysis in MVs, suggesting that NTPDase1, NTPDase3, and/or NPP1 could also participate in ATP hydrolysis. Ouabain (3 mM) inhibited 3-8% of the total ATP hydrolysis by MVs, suggesting that NKA contributed only a small percentage of the total ATP hydrolysis. MVs induced mineralization via ATP hydrolysis that was significantly inhibited by Levamisole and also by cleaving TNAP from MVs, confirming that TNAP is the main enzyme hydrolyzing this substrate, while the addition of either ARL-6715 or ouabain had a lesser effect on mineralization. DPPC:DPPE (1:1)-NKA liposome in the presence of a nucleator (PS-CPLX) was more efficient in mineralizing compared with a DPPC-NKA liposome due to a better orientation of the NKA active site. Both types of proteoliposomes were able to induce apatite formation, as evidenced by the presence of the 1040 cm^-1 band. Taken together, the findings indicated that the hydrolysis of ATP was dominated by TNAP and other phosphatases present in MVs, while only 3-8% of the total hydrolysis of ATP could be attributed to NKA. It was hypothesized that the loss of Na/K asymmetry in MVs could be caused by a complete depletion of ATP inside MVs, impairing the maintenance of symmetry by NKA. Our study carried out on NKA-liposomes confirmed that NKA could contribute to mineral formation inside MVs, which might complement the known action of PHOSPHO1 in the MV lumen.

Short-Term Mild Hypoxia Modulates Na,K-ATPase to Maintain Membrane Electrogenesis in Rat Skeletal Muscle

The Na,K-ATPase plays an important role in adaptation to hypoxia. Prolonged hypoxia results in loss of skeletal muscle mass, structure, and performance. However, hypoxic preconditioning is known to protect against a variety of functional impairments. In this study, we tested the possibility of mild hypoxia to modulate the Na,K-ATPase and to improve skeletal muscle electrogenesis. The rats were subjected to simulated high-altitude (3000 m above sea level) hypobaric hypoxia (HH) for 3 h using a hypobaric chamber. Isolated diaphragm and soleus muscles were tested. In the diaphragm muscle, HH increased the α2 Na,K-ATPase isozyme electrogenic activity and stably hyperpolarized the extrajunctional membrane for 24 h. These changes were accompanied by a steady increase in the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances as well as a decrease in the serum level of endogenous ouabain, a specific ligand of the Na,K-ATPase. HH also increased the α2 Na,K-ATPase membrane abundance without changing its total protein content; the plasma membrane lipid-ordered phase did not change. In the soleus muscle, HH protected against disuse (hindlimb suspension) induced sarcolemmal depolarization. Considering that the Na,K-ATPase is critical for maintaining skeletal muscle electrogenesis and performance, these findings may have implications for countermeasures in disuse-induced pathology and hypoxic therapy.

Chronic Ouabain Prevents Radiation-Induced Reduction in the α2 Na,K-ATPase Function in the Rat Diaphragm Muscle

The damaging effect of ionizing radiation (IR) on skeletal muscle Na,K-ATPase is an open field of research. Considering a therapeutic potential of ouabain, a specific ligand of the Na,K-ATPase, we tested its ability to protect against the IR-induced disturbances of Na,K-ATPase function in rat diaphragm muscle that co-expresses the α1 and α2 isozymes of this protein. Male Wistar rats (n = 26) were subjected to 6-day injections of vehicle (0.9% NaCl) or ouabain (1 µg/kg/day). On the fourth day of injections, rats were exposed to one-time total-body X-ray irradiation (10 Gy), or a sham irradiation. The isolated muscles were studied 72 h post-irradiation. IR decreased the electrogenic contribution of the α2 Na,K-ATPase without affecting its protein content, thereby causing sarcolemma depolarization. IR increased serum concentrations of ouabain, IL-6, and corticosterone, decreased lipid peroxidation, and changed cellular redox status. Chronic ouabain administration prevented IR-induced depolarization and loss of the α2 Na,K-ATPase electrogenic contribution without changing its protein content. This was accompanied with an elevation of ouabain concentration in circulation and with the lack of IR-induced suppression of lipid peroxidation. Given the crucial role of Na,K-ATPase in skeletal muscle performance, these findings may have therapeutic implications as countermeasures for IR-induced muscle pathology.

Cryo-EM structures of recombinant human sodium-potassium pump determined in three different states

Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, NKA) is an ion pump that generates an electrochemical gradient of sodium and potassium ions across the plasma membrane by hydrolyzing ATP. During each Post-Albers cycle, NKA exchanges three cytoplasmic sodium ions for two extracellular potassium ions through alternating changes between the E1 and E2 states. Hitherto, several steps remained unknown during the complete working cycle of NKA. Here, we report cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of recombinant human NKA (hNKA) in three distinct states at 2.7–3.2 Å resolution, representing the E1·3Na and E1·3Na·ATP states with cytosolic gates open and the basic E2·[2K] state, respectively. This work provides the insights into the cytoplasmic Na⁺ entrance pathway and the mechanism of cytoplasmic gate closure coupled with ATP hydrolysis, filling crucial gaps in the structural elucidation of the Post-Albers cycle of NKA.

Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, NKA) generates an electrochemical gradient of sodium and potassium ions across the plasma membrane by hydrolyzing ATP. Here, the authors report structures of human NKA providing insight into the cytoplasmic Na⁺ entrance and the cytoplasmic gate closure coupled to ATP hydrolysis.

Changes in Phospholipid Composition of the Human Cerebellum and Motor Cortex during Normal Ageing

(1) Background: Changes in phospholipid (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine, i.e., PC, PE and PS) composition with age in the mitochondrial and microsomal membranes of the human cerebellum and motor cortex were examined and compared to previous analyses of the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. (2) Methods: Nano-electrospray ionization on a hybrid triple quadrupole−linear ion trap mass spectrometer was used to analyse the brain regions of subjects aged 18−104 years. (3) Results: With age, the cerebellum showed many changes in the major phospholipids (>10% of the phospholipid class). In both membrane types, these included increases in PE 18:0_22:6 and PS 18:0_22:6, decreases in PE 18:0_20:4 and PS 18:0_18:1 and an increase in PC 16:0_16:0 (microsomal membrane only). In addition, twenty-one minor phospholipids also changed. In the motor cortex, only ten minor phospholipids changed with age. With age, the acyl composition of the membranes in the cerebellum increased in docosahexaenoic acid (22:6) and decreased in the arachidonic (20:4) and adrenic (22:4) acids. A comparison of phospholipid changes in the cerebellum, motor cortex and other brain areas is provided. (4) Conclusions: The cerebellum is exceptional in the large number of major phospholipids that undergo changes (with consequential changes in acyl composition) with age, whereas the motor cortex is highly resistant to change.

Cardiac glycosides stimulate endocytosis of GLUT1 via intracellular Na+ ,K+ -ATPase α3-isoform in human cancer cells

Glucose transporter GLUT1 plays a primary role in the glucose metabolism of cancer cells. Here, we found that cardiac glycosides (CGs) such as ouabain, oleandrin, and digoxin, which are Na⁺ ,K⁺ -ATPase inhibitors, decreased the GLUT1 expression in the plasma membrane of human cancer cells (liver cancer HepG2, colon cancer HT-29, gastric cancer MKN45, and oral cancer KB cells). The effective concentration of ouabain was lower than that for inhibiting the activity of Na⁺ ,K⁺ -ATPase α1-isoform (α1NaK) in the plasma membrane. The CGs also inhibited [³ H]2-deoxy- d-glucose uptake, lactate secretion, and proliferation of the cancer cells. In intracellular vesicles of human cancer cells, Na⁺ ,K⁺ -ATPase α3-isoform (α3NaK) is abnormally expressed. Here, a low concentration of ouabain inhibited the activity of α3NaK. Knockdown of α3NaK significantly inhibited the ouabain-decreased GLUT1 expression in HepG2 cells, while the α1NaK knockdown did not. Consistent with the results in human cancer cells, CGs had no effect on GLUT1 expression in rat liver cancer dRLh-84 cells where α3NaK was not endogenously expressed. Interestingly, CGs decreased GLUT expression in the dRLh-84 cells exogenously expressing α3NaK. In HepG2 cells, α3NaK was found to be colocalized with TPC1, a Ca²⁺ -releasing channel activated by nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP). The CGs-decreased GLUT1 expression was significantly inhibited by a Ca²⁺ chelator, a Ca²⁺ -ATPase inhibitor, and a NAADP antagonist. The GLUT1 decrease was also attenuated by inhibitors of dynamin and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinases (PI3Ks). In conclusion, the binding of CGs to intracellular α3NaK elicits the NAADP-mediated Ca²⁺ mobilization followed by the dynamin-dependent GLUT1 endocytosis in human cancer cells.

The Donnan-dominated resting state of skeletal muscle fibers contributes to resilience and longevity in dystrophic fibers

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked dystrophin-minus muscle-wasting disease. Ion homeostasis in skeletal muscle fibers underperforms as DMD progresses. But though DMD renders these excitable cells intolerant of exertion, sodium overloaded, depolarized, and spontaneously contractile, they can survive for several decades. We show computationally that underpinning this longevity is a strikingly frugal, robust Pump-Leak/Donnan (P-L/D) ion homeostatic process. Unlike neurons, which operate with a costly “Pump-Leak–dominated” ion homeostatic steady state, skeletal muscle fibers operate with a low-cost “Donnan-dominated” ion homeostatic steady state that combines a large chloride permeability with an exceptionally small sodium permeability. Simultaneously, this combination keeps fiber excitability low and minimizes pump expenditures. As mechanically active, long-lived multinucleate cells, skeletal muscle fibers have evolved to handle overexertion, sarcolemmal tears, ischemic bouts, etc.; the frugality of their Donnan dominated steady state lets them maintain the outsized pump reserves that make them resilient during these inevitable transient emergencies. Here, P-L/D model variants challenged with DMD-type insult/injury (low pump-strength, overstimulation, leaky Nav and cation channels) show how chronic “nonosmotic” sodium overload (observed in DMD patients) develops. Profoundly severe DMD ion homeostatic insult/injury causes spontaneous firing (and, consequently, unwanted excitation–contraction coupling) that elicits cytotoxic swelling. Therefore, boosting operational pump-strength and/or diminishing sodium and cation channel leaks should help extend DMD fiber longevity.

Structure and Function of Na,K-ATPase-The Sodium-Potassium Pump

Na,K-ATPase is an ubiquitous enzyme actively transporting Na-ions out of the cell in exchange for K-ions, thereby maintaining their concentration gradients across the cell membrane. Since its discovery more than six decades ago the Na-pump has been studied extensively and its vital physiological role in essentially every cell has been established. This article aims at providing an overview of well-established biochemical properties with a focus on Na,K-ATPase isoforms, its transport mechanism and principle conformations, inhibitors, and insights gained from crystal structures. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-21, 2021.

Sterol Extraction from Isolated Plant Plasma Membrane Vesicles Affects H+-ATPase Activity and H+-Transport

Plasma membrane H+-ATPase is known to be detected in detergent-resistant sterol-enriched fractions, also called "raft" domains. Studies on H+-ATPase reconstituted in artificial or native membrane vesicles have shown both sterol-mediated stimulations and inhibitions of its activity. Here, using sealed isolated plasma membrane vesicles, we investigated the effects of sterol depletion in the presence of methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) on H+-ATPase activity. The rate of ATP-dependent ∆µH+ generation and the kinetic parameters of ATP hydrolysis were evaluated. We show that the relative sterols content in membrane vesicles decreased gradually after treatment with MβCD and reached approximately 40% of their initial level in 30 mM probe solution. However, changes in the hydrolytic and H+-transport activities of the enzyme were nonlinear. The extraction of up to 20% of the initial sterols was accompanied by strong stimulation of ATP-dependent H+-transport in comparison with the hydrolytic activity of enzymes. Further sterol depletion led to a significant inhibition of active proton transport with an increase in passive H+-leakage. The solubilization of control and sterol-depleted vesicles in the presence of dodecyl maltoside negated the differences in the kinetics parameters of ATP hydrolysis, and all samples demonstrated maximal hydrolytic activities. The mechanisms behind the sensitivity of ATP-dependent H+-transport to sterols in the lipid environment of plasma membrane H+-ATPase are discussed.

Evaluation of Cardiotonic Steroid Modulation of Cellular Cholesterol and Phospholipid

We have previously shown that 21-benzylidene digoxin (21-BD) increases the total cholesterol and phospholipid content on the membrane of HeLa cells. Lipid modulation caused by cardiotonic steroids (CTS) is still unexplored. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the cholesterol and phospholipid modulation of the cell membrane caused by ouabain and 21-BD and the possible involvement of the caveolae on this modulation. For this, one cell line containing caveolae (HeLa) and other not containing (Caco-2) were used. The modulation of the lipid profile was evaluated by total cholesterol and phospholipids measurements, and identification of membrane phospholipids by HPTLC. The cholesterol distribution was evaluated by filipin staining. The caveolin-1 expression was evaluated by Western Blotting. Ouabain had no effect on the total membrane lipid content in both cell lines. However, 21-BD increased total membrane phospholipid content and had no effect on the membrane cholesterol content in Caco-2 cells. CTS were not able to alter the specific phospholipids content. In the filipin experiments, 21-BD provoked a remarkable redistribution of cholesterol to the perinuclear region of HeLa cells. In Caco-2 cells, it was observed only a slight increase in cholesterol, especially as intracellular vesicles. The caveolin-1 expression was not altered by any of the compounds. Our data mainly show different effects of two cardiotonic steroids. Ouabain had no effect on the lipid profile of cells, whereas 21-BD causes important changes in cholesterol and phospholipid content. Therefore, the modulation of cholesterol content in the plasma membrane of HeLa cells is not correlated with the expression of caveolin-1.

A missense mutation converts the Na+,K+-ATPase into an ion channel and causes therapy-resistant epilepsy

The ion pump Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase is a critical determinant of neuronal excitability; however, its role in the etiology of diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) is largely unknown. We describe here the molecular phenotype of a Trp931Arg mutation of the Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase catalytic α1 subunit in an infant diagnosed with therapy-resistant lethal epilepsy. In addition to the pathological CNS phenotype, we also detected renal wasting of Mg²⁺. We found that membrane expression of the mutant α1 protein was low, and ion pumping activity was lost. Arginine insertion into membrane proteins can generate water-filled pores in the plasma membrane, and our molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of the principle states of Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase transport demonstrated massive water inflow into mutant α1 and destabilization of the ion-binding sites. MD simulations also indicated that a water pathway was created between the mutant arginine residue and the cytoplasm, and analysis of oocytes expressing mutant α1 detected a nonspecific cation current. Finally, neurons expressing mutant α1 were observed to be depolarized compared with neurons expressing wild-type protein, compatible with a lowered threshold for epileptic seizures. The results imply that Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase should be considered a neuronal locus minoris resistentia in diseases associated with epilepsy and with loss of plasma membrane integrity.

Mechanistic Understanding from Molecular Dynamics in Pharmaceutical Research 2: Lipid Membrane in Drug Design

We review the use of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation as a drug design tool in the context of the role that the lipid membrane can play in drug action, i.e., the interaction between candidate drug molecules and lipid membranes. In the standard "lock and key" paradigm, only the interaction between the drug and a specific active site of a specific protein is considered; the environment in which the drug acts is, from a biophysical perspective, far more complex than this. The possible mechanisms though which a drug can be designed to tinker with physiological processes are significantly broader than merely fitting to a single active site of a single protein. In this paper, we focus on the role of the lipid membrane, arguably the most important element outside the proteins themselves, as a case study. We discuss work that has been carried out, using MD simulation, concerning the transfection of drugs through membranes that act as biological barriers in the path of the drugs, the behavior of drug molecules within membranes, how their collective behavior can affect the structure and properties of the membrane and, finally, the role lipid membranes, to which the vast majority of drug target proteins are associated, can play in mediating the interaction between drug and target protein. This review paper is the second in a two-part series covering MD simulation as a tool in pharmaceutical research; both are designed as pedagogical review papers aimed at both pharmaceutical scientists interested in exploring how the tool of MD simulation can be applied to their research and computational scientists interested in exploring the possibility of a pharmaceutical context for their research.

Effect of Detergents on Activity and Magnesium-Dependent Properties of Different Isoforms of Na+,K+-ATPase in the Crude Membrane Fraction of Rat Cerebral Cortex

We studied the effect of various detergents (Tween-20, Triton X-100, and sodium deoxycholate) on activity and magnesium-dependent properties of Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase of the crude membrane fraction of rat cerebral cortex. All studied detergents significantly increased activity of the studied enzyme in a concentration-dependent manner. Sodium deoxycholate provided significantly higher values Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity (by ≈50%) than Triton X-100 and Tween-20. In the presence of Triton X-100, a changed pattern of the dependence of enzyme activity on the concentration of magnesium ions in the incubation solution was noted. Separate measurement of activities of Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase isoforms made it possible to assume that changes in magnesium-dependent properties are due to the predominant effect of Triton X-100 on ouabain-sensitive α2- and α3-isoforms.

Assessing the Role of Lipids in the Molecular Mechanism of Membrane Proteins

Membrane proteins have evolved to work optimally within the complex environment of the biological membrane. Consequently, interactions with surrounding lipids are part of their molecular mechanism. Yet, the identification of lipid-protein interactions and the assessment of their molecular role is an experimental challenge. Recently, biophysical approaches have emerged that are compatible with the study of membrane proteins in an environment closer to the biological membrane. These novel approaches revealed specific mechanisms of regulation of membrane protein function. Lipids have been shown to play a role in oligomerization, conformational transitions or allosteric coupling. In this review, we summarize the recent biophysical approaches, or combination thereof, that allow to decipher the role of lipid-protein interactions in the mechanism of membrane proteins.

The Content of Minerals in the PCOS Group and the Correlation with the Parameters of Metabolism

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common disease in women of childbearing age. It is characterized by excessive androgen production, ovulation disorders, and developing metabolic syndrome. The aim of the study was to check whether selected minerals were related to the pathophysiological mechanisms of PCOS. The concentrations of minerals were determined using an inductively coupled atomic plasma-emission spectrometer (ICP-AES Jobin Yvon JY-24). Blood samples from PCOS and control women were collected, processed, and digested with a microwave system in women with PCOS with and without insulin resistance and in the control group. It was found: zinc (Zn)-10.14 ± 2.11, 9.89 ± 1.44 and 10.30 ± 1.67; nickel (Ni) 0.001 ± 0.0009, 0.001 ± 0.0006 and 0.002 ± 0.00001; iron (Fe) 868.0 ± 155.8, 835.3 ± 156.4 and 833.0 ± 94.6; manganese (Mn) 0.017 ± 0.006, 0.017 ± 0.008 and 0.020 ± 0.009; copper (Cu) 0.714 ± 0.129, 0.713 ± 0.114 and 0.761 ± 0.146; magnesium (Mg) 48.4 ± 8.3, 50.0 ± 8.4 and 45.3 ± 10.7; sodium (Na) 374.3 ± 84.3, 396.3 ± 66.6 and 367.9 ± 88.9; potassium (K) 2541.8 ± 330.9, 2409.6 ± 347.1 and 2336.9 ± 211.4 (µg/g). Some micronutrient deficiencies may have a negative effect on the lipid profile in PCOS patients (Ni, Na). Further studies are needed to better understand dependencies.

DHA and Its Elaborated Modulation of Antioxidant Defenses of the Brain: Implications in Aging and AD Neurodegeneration

DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) is perhaps the most pleiotropic molecule in nerve cell biology. This long-chain highly unsaturated fatty acid has evolved to accomplish essential functions ranging from structural components allowing fast events in nerve cell membrane physiology to regulation of neurogenesis and synaptic function. Strikingly, the plethora of DHA effects has to take place within the hostile pro-oxidant environment of the brain parenchyma, which might suggest a molecular suicide. In order to circumvent this paradox, different molecular strategies have evolved during the evolution of brain cells to preserve DHA and to minimize the deleterious effects of its oxidation. In this context, DHA has emerged as a member of the “indirect antioxidants” family, the redox effects of which are not due to direct redox interactions with reactive species, but to modulation of gene expression within thioredoxin and glutathione antioxidant systems and related pathways. Weakening or deregulation of these self-protecting defenses orchestrated by DHA is associated with normal aging but also, more worryingly, with the development of neurodegenerative diseases. In the present review, we elaborate on the essential functions of DHA in the brain, including its role as indirect antioxidant, the selenium connection for proper antioxidant function and their changes during normal aging and in Alzheimer’s disease.

Resilience of cardiac performance in Antarctic notothenioid fishes in a warming climate

Warming in the region of the Western Antarctic Peninsula is occurring at an unprecedented rate, which may threaten the survival of Antarctic notothenioid fishes. Herein, we review studies characterizing thermal tolerance and cardiac performance in notothenioids - a group that includes both red-blooded species and the white-blooded, haemoglobinless icefishes - as well as the relevant biochemistry associated with cardiac failure during an acute temperature ramp. Because icefishes do not feed in captivity, making long-term acclimation studies unfeasible, we focus only on the responses of red-blooded notothenioids to warm acclimation. With acute warming, hearts of the white-blooded icefish Chaenocephalus aceratus display persistent arrhythmia at a lower temperature (8°C) compared with those of the red-blooded Notothenia coriiceps (14°C). When compared with the icefish, the enhanced cardiac performance of N. coriiceps during warming is associated with greater aerobic capacity, higher ATP levels, less oxidative damage and enhanced membrane integrity. Cardiac performance can be improved in N. coriiceps with warm acclimation to 5°C for 6-9 weeks, accompanied by an increase in the temperature at which cardiac failure occurs. Also, both cardiac mitochondrial and microsomal membranes are remodelled in response to warm acclimation in N. coriiceps, displaying homeoviscous adaptation. Overall, cardiac performance in N. coriiceps is malleable and resilient to warming, yet thermal tolerance and plasticity vary among different species of notothenioid fishes; disruptions to the Antarctic ecosystem driven by climate warming and other anthropogenic activities endanger the survival of notothenioids, warranting greater protection afforded by an expansion of marine protected areas.

Endoplasmic Reticulum-Plasma Membrane Contact Sites as an Organizing Principle for Compartmentalized Calcium and cAMP Signaling

In eukaryotic cells, ultimate specificity in activation and action-for example, by means of second messengers-of the myriad of signaling cascades is primordial. In fact, versatile and ubiquitous second messengers, such as calcium (Ca2+) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), regulate multiple-sometimes opposite-cellular functions in a specific spatiotemporal manner. Cells achieve this through segregation of the initiators and modulators to specific plasma membrane (PM) subdomains, such as lipid rafts and caveolae, as well as by dynamic close contacts between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and other intracellular organelles, including the PM. Especially, these membrane contact sites (MCSs) are currently receiving a lot of attention as their large influence on cell signaling regulation and cell physiology is increasingly appreciated. Depletion of ER Ca2+ stores activates ER membrane STIM proteins, which activate PM-residing Orai and TRPC Ca2+ channels at ER-PM contact sites. Within the MCS, Ca2+ fluxes relay to cAMP signaling through highly interconnected networks. However, the precise mechanisms of MCS formation and the influence of their dynamic lipid environment on their functional maintenance are not completely understood. The current review aims to provide an overview of our current understanding and to identify open questions of the field.

The fine-tuning of cell membrane lipid bilayers accentuates their compositional complexity

Cell membranes are now emerging as finely tuned molecular systems, signifying that re-evaluation of our understanding of their structure is essential. Although the idea that cell membrane lipid bilayers do little more than give shape and form to cells and limit diffusion between cells and their environment is totally passé, the structural, compositional, and functional complexity of lipid bilayers often catches cell and molecular biologists by surprise. Models of lipid bilayer structure have developed considerably since the heyday of the fluid mosaic model, principally by the discovery of the restricted diffusion of membrane proteins and lipids within the plane of the bilayer. In reviewing this field, we now suggest that further refinement of current models is necessary and propose that describing lipid bilayers as "finely-tuned molecular assemblies" best portrays their complexity and function. Also see the video abstract here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddkP-QRZTl8.

Homeoviscous adaptation occurs with thermal acclimation in biological membranes from heart and gill, but not the brain, in the Antarctic fish Notothenia coriiceps

As temperatures continue to rise, adjustments to biological membranes will be key for maintenance of function. It is largely unknown to what extent Antarctic notothenioids possess the capacity to remodel their biological membranes in response to thermal change. In this study, physical and biochemical properties were examined in membranes prepared from gill epithelia (plasma membranes), cardiac ventricles (microsomes, mitochondria), and brains (synaptic membranes, myelin, mitochondria) from Notothenia coriiceps following acclimation to 5 °C (or held at ambient temperature, 0 °C) for a minimum of 6 weeks. Fluidity was measured between 0 and 30 °C in all membranes, and polar lipid compositions and cholesterol contents were analyzed in a subset of biological membranes from all tissues. Osmotic permeability was measured in gills at 0 and 4 °C. Gill plasma membranes, cardiac mitochondria, and cardiac microsomes displayed reduced fluidity following acclimation to 5 °C, indicating compensation for elevated temperature. In contrast, no fluidity changes with acclimation were observed in any of the membranes prepared from brain. In all membranes, adjustments to the relative abundances of major phospholipid classes, and to the extent of fatty acid unsaturation, were undetectable following thermal acclimation. However, alterations in cholesterol contents and acyl chain length, consistent with the changes in fluidity, were observed in membranes from gill and cardiac tissue. Water permeability was reduced with 5 °C acclimation in gills, indicating near-perfect homeostatic efficacy. Taken together, these results demonstrate a homeoviscous response in gill and cardiac membranes, and limited plasticity in membranes from the nervous system, in an Antarctic notothenioid.

Effectiveness of Pulmonary Surfactant in the Treatment of Corneal Edema

Purpose: To compare the effectiveness of topical surfactant and 3% sodium chloride (NaCl) in the treatment of corneal edema occurring after cataract surgery. Methods: Ninety eyes of 90 patients with no corneal disease who underwent cataract surgery were included in the study. Thirty eyes without corneal edema comprised group 1. Patients with corneal edema were divided into two groups: those treated with 3% NaCl (group 2, 30 eyes) and those treated with surfactant drop (group 3, 30 eyes). Results: The mean age was 70.8 ± 6.6 years, with no significant age difference between the groups. Preoperatively, there was no significant difference in mean central corneal thickness (CCT) or mean endothelial cell count (ECC) among the groups (P = 0.999). On postoperative day 1, CCT was significantly lower in group 1 (P < 0.001) but did not differ between groups 2 and 3 (P = 0.999). There was no significant difference between groups in terms of ECC (P > 0.05). At postoperative day 7 and 14, CCT differed significantly between groups 1 and 2 (P < 0.001) and between groups 2 and 3 (P = 0.001), with no significant difference between groups 1 and 3 (P = 0.474). ECC was significantly higher in group 1 (P < 0.05), whereas there was no significant difference between groups 2 and 3 (P > 0.05). Conclusion: Topical pulmonary surfactant may be a more effective treatment option than 3% hypertonic NaCl for the treatment of corneal edema that develops after cataract surgery.

Membrane lipids and transporter function

Transport proteins are essential for cells in allowing the exchange of substances between cells and their environment across the lipid bilayer forming a tight barrier. Membrane lipids modulate the function of transmembrane proteins such as transporters in two ways: Lipids are tightly and specifically bound to transport proteins and in addition they modulate from the bulk of the lipid bilayer the function of transport proteins. This overview summarizes currently available information at the ultrastructural level on lipids tightly bound to transport proteins and the impact of altered bulk membrane lipid composition. Human diseases leading to altered lipid homeostasis will lead to altered membrane lipid composition, which in turn affect the function of transporter proteins.

Differential expression of two ATPases revealed by lipid raft isolation from gills of euryhaline teleosts with different salinity preferences

In euryhaline teleosts, Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase (NKA) and V-type H + -ATPase A (VHA A) are important ion-transporters located in cell membrane. Lipid rafts (LR) are plasma membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol, sphingolipids, and proteins (e.g., flotillin). Flotillin is a LR-associated protein, commonly used as the LR marker. Previous mammalian studies showed that LR may play a crucial role in ion exchanges. Meanwhile, studies on mammals and rainbow trout showed that NKA were found to be present mainly in LR. However, little is known about LR in fish. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the involvement of branchial LR in osmoregulation of tilapia and milkfish, two euryhaline teleosts with different salinity preferences, by (i) extracting LR from the gills of euryhaline teleosts; (ii) detecting the abundance of LR marker protein (flotillin-2) and ion-transporters (NKA and VHA A) in branchial LR and non-LR of fresh water- and seawater-acclimated milkfish and tilapia. The results indicated that the protein abundance of LR marker, flotillin-2, changed with environmental salinities in branchial LR of tilapia. In addition, flotillin-2 and NKA were only found in LR in both tilapia and milkfish gills, while VHA A were mainly present in non-LR. Relative protein abundance of NKA was found to be significantly higher in gills of freshwater milkfish and seawater tilapia, while VHA A was significantly higher in gills of freshwater tilapia and milkfish. This study illustrated differential distribution and salinity-dependent expression of NKA and VHA A in cell membrane of gill tissues of euryhaline teleosts with different salinity preferences.

Tracking Membrane Protein Dynamics in Real Time

Abstract

Membrane proteins govern critical cellular processes and are central to human health and associated disease. Understanding of membrane protein function is obscured by the vast ranges of structural dynamics—both in the spatial and time regime—displayed in the protein and surrounding membrane. The membrane lipids have emerged as allosteric modulators of membrane protein function, which further adds to the complexity. In this review, we discuss several examples of membrane dependency. A particular focus is on how molecular dynamics (MD) simulation have aided to map membrane protein dynamics and how enhanced sampling methods can enable observing the otherwise inaccessible biological time scale. Also, time-resolved X-ray scattering in solution is highlighted as a powerful tool to track membrane protein dynamics, in particular when combined with MD simulation to identify transient intermediate states. Finally, we discuss future directions of how to further develop this promising approach to determine structural dynamics of both the protein and the surrounding lipids.

Graphic Abstract

Exofacial membrane composition and lipid metabolism regulates plasma membrane P4-ATPase substrate specificity

The plasma membrane of a cell is characterized by an asymmetric distribution of lipid species across the exofacial and cytofacial aspects of the bilayer. Regulation of membrane asymmetry is a fundamental characteristic of membrane biology and is crucial for signal transduction, vesicle transport, and cell division. The type IV family of P-ATPases, or P4-ATPases, establishes membrane asymmetry by selection and transfer of a subset of membrane lipids from the lumenal or exofacial leaflet to the cytofacial aspect of the bilayer. It is unclear how P4-ATPases sort through the spectrum of membrane lipids to identify their desired substrate(s) and how the membrane environment modulates this activity. Therefore, we tested how the yeast plasma membrane P4-ATPase, Dnf2, responds to changes in membrane composition induced by perturbation of endogenous lipid biosynthetic pathways or exogenous application of lipid. The primary substrates of Dnf2 are glucosylceramide (GlcCer) and phosphatidylcholine (PC, or their lyso-lipid derivatives), and we find that these substrates compete with each other for transport. Acutely inhibiting sphingolipid synthesis using myriocin attenuates transport of exogenously applied GlcCer without perturbing PC transport. Deletion of genes controlling later steps of glycosphingolipid production also perturb GlcCer transport to a greater extent than PC transport. In contrast, perturbation of ergosterol biosynthesis reduces PC and GlcCer transport equivalently. Surprisingly, application of lipids that are poor transport substrates differentially affects PC and GlcCer transport by Dnf2, thus altering substrate preference. Our data indicate that Dnf2 exhibits exquisite sensitivity to the membrane composition, thus providing feedback onto the function of the P4-ATPases.

Structure and Mechanism of P-Type ATPase Ion Pumps

P-type ATPases are found in all kingdoms of life and constitute a wide range of cation transporters, primarily for H⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, and transition metal ions such as Cu(I), Zn(II), and Cd(II). They have been studied through a wide range of techniques, and research has gained very significant insight on their transport mechanism and regulation. Here, we review the structure, function, and dynamics of P2-ATPases including Ca²⁺-ATPases and Na,K-ATPase. We highlight mechanisms of functional transitions that are associated with ion exchange on either side of the membrane and how the functional cycle is regulated by interaction partners, autoregulatory domains, and off-cycle states. Finally, we discuss future perspectives based on emerging techniques and insights.

Mammals to membranes: A reductionist story

This is the story of a series of reductionist studies that started with an attempt to explain what underpins the high-level of aerobic metabolism in mammals (i.e. associated with the evolution of endothermy) and almost forty years later had led to investigations into the role of membrane lipids in determining metabolism. Initial studies showed that the increase in aerobic metabolism in mammals was driven by a combination of increases in mitochondrial volume and membrane densities, organ size and changes in the molecular activity of enzymes. The increase in the capacity to produce energy was matched by an increase in energy use, notably driven by increases in H⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺ fluxes. In the case of increased Na⁺ flux, it was found this was matched by increases in Na⁺-dependent metabolism at the tissue level and increases in enzyme activity at a cellular level but not by an increase in the number of sodium pumps. To maintain Na⁺ gradient across cell membranes, increased Na⁺ flux is not controlled by an increase in sodium pump number but rather by an increase in sodium pump molecular activity (i.e. an increase the substrate turnover rate of each sodium pump) in tissues of endotherms. This increase in molecular activity is coupled to an increase in the level of highly unsaturated polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in membranes, a mechanism similar to that used by ectotherms to ameliorate decreasing activities of metabolic processes in the cold. Determination of how changes in membrane fatty acid composition can change the activities of proteins in membranes will be the next step in this story.

Thermal profiles reveal stark contrasts in properties of biological membranes from heart among Antarctic notothenioid fishes which vary in expression of hemoglobin and myoglobin

Antarctic notothenioids are noted for extreme stenothermy, yet underpinnings of their thermal limits are not fully understood. We hypothesized that properties of ventricular membranes could explain previously observed differences among notothenioids in temperature onset of cardiac arrhythmias and persistent asystole. Microsomes were prepared using ventricles from six species of notothenioids, including four species from the hemoglobin-less (Hb-) family Channichthyidae (icefishes), which also differentially express cardiac myoglobin (Mb), and two species from the (Hb+) Nototheniidae. We determined membrane fluidity and structural integrity by quantifying fluorescence depolarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) and leakage of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein, respectively, over a temperature range from ambient (0 °C) to 20 °C. Compositions of membrane phospholipids and cholesterol contents were also quantified. Membranes from all four species of icefishes exhibited greater fluidity than membranes from the red-blooded species N. coriiceps. Thermal sensitivity of fluidity did not vary among species. The greatest thermal sensitivity to leakage occurred between 0 and 5 °C for all species, while membranes from the icefish, Chaenocephalus aceratus (Hb-/Mb-) displayed leakage that was nearly 1.5-fold greater than leakage in N. coriiceps (Hb+/Mb+). Contents of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were approximately 1.5-fold greater in icefishes than in red-blooded fishes, and phospholipids had a higher degree of unsaturation in icefishes than in Hb + notothenioids. Cholesterol contents were lowest in Champsocephalus gunnari (Hb-/Mb-) and highest in the two Hb+/Mb + species, G. gibberifrons and N. coriiceps. Our results reveal marked differences in membrane properties and indicate a breach in membrane fluidity and structural integrity at a lower temperature in icefishes than in red-blooded notothenioids.