Immunity and autoantibodies of a mouse strain with autistic-like behavior

Identification of immune cells and circulating inflammatory factors associated with neurodevelopmental disorders by bidirectional Mendelian randomization and mediation analysis

The roles of various immune cells and circulating inflammatory factors in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) remain controversial. Therefore we employed a two-sample and bidirectional Mendelian randomization and mediation method to explore the causal relationships between immune cells, circulating inflammatory factors, and NDDs. All data were originated from Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) datasets. We found a significant positive causal relationship between 13 immune cells and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including six CD8+ T cells, one CD3+ T cell, two CD20+ B cells, one CD38+  B cell, and two plasmacytoid DC. 9 inflammatory factors showed significant causal relationships with ASD: interleukins-7 (IL-7), interleukins-2 (IL-2), Interleukin-2 receptor subunit beta levels( IL-2β) and interleukins-18 receptor 1 levels (IL-18-R1) were negatively associated. In contrast, five inflammatory factors were positively associated, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). 14 immune cells exhibited significant causal relationships with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). CD3 on naive CD8br and CD4 on activated Treg were positively associated, while four CD27-expressing B cells were positively associated with ASD. Four CD40-expressing monocytes were negatively associated with ADHD. 7 inflammatory factors had significant causal relationships with ADHD: Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 levels (FGF-23), CD40L receptor levels, Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor levels (GDNF), TNF-α were more important among these. Mediation analysis identified 12 mediating relationships, with three showing strong evidence: Natural killer cell receptor 2B4 levels (19.9%), FGF-23 (11%), and Eotaxin levels (- 5.95%). Strong causal relationships existed between immune cells, circulating inflammatory factors, and NDDs. Inflammatory factors mediated the pathways between immune cells and NDDs.

An integrative exploration of environmental stressors on the microbiome-gut-brain axis and immune mechanisms promoting neurological disorders

The microbiome-gut-brain axis is altered by environmental stressors such as heat, diet, and pollutants as well as microbes in the air, water, and soil. These stressors might alter the host's microbiome and symbiotic relationship by modifying the microbial composition or location. Compartmentalized mutualistic microbes promote the beneficial interactions in the host leading to circulating metabolites and hormones such as insulin and leptin that affect inter-organ functions. Inflammation and oxidative stress induced by environmental stressors may alter the composition, distribution, and activities of the microbes in the microbiomes such that the resultant metabolite and hormone changes are no longer beneficial. The microbiome-gut-brain axis and immune adverse changes that may accompany environmental stressors are reviewed for effects on innate and adaptive immune cells, which may make host immunity less responsive to pathogens and more reactive to self-antigens. Cardiovascular and fluid exchanges to organs might adversely alter organ functionality. Organs, especially the brain, need a consistent supply of nutrients and clearance of debris; disruption of these exchanges by stressors, and involvement of gut microbiome are discussed regarding neural dysfunctions with Alzheimer's disease, autistic spectrum disorders, viral infections, and autoimmune diseases. The focus of this review includes the manner in which environmental stressors may disrupt gut microbiota leading to adverse immune and hormonal influences on development of neuropathology related to hyperhomocysteinemia, inflammation, and oxidative stress, and how certain therapeutics may be beneficial. Strategies are explored to lessen detrimental effects of environmental stressors on central and peripheral health navigated toward (1) understanding neurological disorders and (2) promoting environmental and public health and well-being.

Causal effects of 731 immune cell phenotypes on autism spectrum disorder: a Mendelian randomization study

Objective

The role of different immune cells in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is still controversial. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the causal effects of different immune cell phenotypes on ASD via Mendelian randomization (MR).

Methods

Datasets of immune cell phenotypes were obtained from the European Bioinformatics Institute, and datasets of ASD were obtained from the IEU Open GWAS project. Single nucleotide polymorphisms were selected based on the assumptions of association, independence, and exclusivity. Inverse variance weighted was utilized as the main method for MR analysis. MR-Egger was employed to assess the horizontal pleiotropy of the results. Cochran's Q and leave-one-out method were used for heterogeneity analysis and sensitivity analysis of the results, respectively.

Results

MR analysis showed that TD CD8br AC [odds ratio (OR), 1.137; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.031-1.254; p = 0.010], CD8br %leukocyte (OR, 1.142; 95% CI, 1.067-1.223; p < 0.001), CD8br and CD8dim %leukocyte (OR, 1.117; 95% CI, 1.032-1.210; p = 0.006), naive CD8br %T cell (OR, 1.052; 95% CI, 1.004-1.104; p = 0.035), CD28- CD8dim %T cell (OR, 1.097; 95% CI, 1.038-1.158; p < 0.001), CD127- CD8br AC (OR, 1.086; 95% CI, 1.006-1.171; p = 0.034), CD45 on CD8br (OR, 1.059; 95% CI, 1.021-1.099; p = 0.002), CD3 on HLA DR+ CD8br (OR, 1.098; 95% CI, 1.041-1.158; p < 0.001), CD4 on activated Treg (OR, 1.048; 95% CI, 1.001-1.096; p = 0.046), CD3 on CD39+ resting Treg (OR, 1.070; 95% CI, 1.012-1.131; p = 0.018), IgD+ CD38- %lymphocyte (OR, 1.103; 95% CI, 1.023-1.190; p = 0.011), CD62L- plasmacytoid DC %DC (OR, 1.046; 95% CI, 1.001-1.093; p = 0.046), and FSC-A on plasmacytoid DC (OR, 1.075; 95% CI, 1.003-1.153; p = 0.042) were associated with increased genetic susceptibility to ASD. MR-Egger displayed no horizontal pleiotropy (p ≥ 0.05). Cochran's Q revealed no heterogeneity of results (p ≥ 0.05). Sensitivity analysis indicated that the results were robust.

Conclusion

This MR analysis revealed 13 immune cell phenotypes associated with increased genetic susceptibility to ASD and emphasized the importance of CD8 T cells and Tregs, which provides new directions for the pathogenesis and drug research of ASD.

Oxidative stress and neuroimmune proteins in a mouse model of autism

Oxidative stress including decreased antioxidant enzyme activities, elevated lipid peroxidation, and accumulation of advanced glycation end products in the blood from children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has been reported. The mechanisms affecting the development of ASD remain unclear; however, toxic environmental exposures leading to oxidative stress have been proposed to play a significant role. The BTBRT+Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) strain provides a model to investigate the markers of oxidation in a mouse strain exhibiting ASD-like behavioral phenotypes. In the present study, we investigated the level of oxidative stress and its effects on immune cell populations, specifically oxidative stress affecting surface thiols (R-SH), intracellular glutathione (iGSH), and expression of brain biomarkers that may contribute to the development of the ASD-like phenotypes that have been observed and reported in BTBR mice. Lower levels of cell surface R-SH were detected on multiple immune cell subpopulations from blood, spleens, and lymph nodes and for sera R-SH levels of BTBR mice compared to C57BL/6 J (B6) mice. The iGSH levels of immune cell populations were also lower in the BTBR mice. Elevated protein expression of GATA3, TGM2, AhR, EPHX2, TSLP, PTEN, IRE1α, GDF15, and metallothionein in BTBR mice is supportive of an increased level of oxidative stress in BTBR mice and may underpin the pro-inflammatory immune state that has been reported in the BTBR strain. Results of a decreased antioxidant system suggest an important oxidative stress role in the development of the BTBR ASD-like phenotype.

Molecular Abnormalities in BTBR Mice and Their Relevance to Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Overview of Transcriptomic and Proteomic Studies

Animal models of psychopathologies are of exceptional interest for neurobiologists because these models allow us to clarify molecular mechanisms underlying the pathologies. One such model is the inbred BTBR strain of mice, which is characterized by behavioral, neuroanatomical, and physiological hallmarks of schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Despite the active use of BTBR mice as a model object, the understanding of the molecular features of this strain that cause the observed behavioral phenotype remains insufficient. Here, we analyzed recently published data from independent transcriptomic and proteomic studies on hippocampal and corticostriatal samples from BTBR mice to search for the most consistent aberrations in gene or protein expression. Next, we compared reproducible molecular signatures of BTBR mice with data on postmortem samples from ASD and SCZ patients. Taken together, these data helped us to elucidate brain-region-specific molecular abnormalities in BTBR mice as well as their relevance to the anomalies seen in ASDs or SCZ in humans.

Autism: genetics, environmental stressors, maternal immune activation, and the male bias in autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a class of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) characterized by deficits in three domains: impairments in social interactions, language, and communication, and increased stereotyped restrictive/repetitive behaviors and interests. The exact etiology of ASD remains unknown. Genetics, gestational exposure to inflammation, and environmental stressors, which combine to affect mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolism, are implicated yet poorly understood contributors and incompletely delineated pathways toward the relative risk of ASD. Many studies have shown a clear male bias in the incidence of ASD and other NDD. In other words, being male is a significant yet poorly understood risk factor for the development of NDD. This review discusses the link between these factors by looking at the current body of evidence. Understanding the link between the multiplicity of hits—from genes to environmental stressors and possible sexual determinants, contributing to autism susceptibility is critical to developing targeted interventions to mitigate these risks.

Social deficits in BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mice vary with ecological validity of the test

Translational value of mouse models of neuropsychiatric disorders depends heavily on the accuracy with which they replicate symptoms observed in the human population. In mouse models of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) these include, among others, social affiliation, and communication deficits as well as impairments in understanding and perception of others. Most studies addressing these issues in the BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mouse, an idiopathic model of ASD, were based on short dyadic interactions of often non-familiar partners placed in a novel environment. In such stressful and variable conditions, the reproducibility of the phenotype was low. Here, we compared physical conditions and the degree of habituation of mice at the time of testing in the three chambered social affiliation task, as well as parameters used to measure social deficits and found that both the level of stress and human bias profoundly affect the results of the test. To minimize these effects, we tested social preference and network dynamics in mice group-housed in the Eco-HAB system. This automated recording allowed for long-lasting monitoring of differences in social repertoire (including interest in social stimuli) in BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J and normosocial c57BL/6J mice. With these observations we further validate the BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mouse as a model for ASD, but at the same time emphasize the need for more ecological testing of social behavior within all constructs of the Systems for Social Processes domain (as defined by the Research Domain Criteria framework).

Constitutive activation of Notch signalling and T cell activation characterize a mouse model of autism

Gene and protein expression of BTBR T⁺ Itpr3^tf /J (BTBR) mice with autistic-like behaviours were compared with the C57BL/6J strain, which is considered to have normal immunity and behaviour. Notch signalling pathway was constitutively activated in the immune system and liver of BTBR T⁺ Itpr3^tf /J (BTBR) mice. Notch ligand 4 (Dll4), Notch receptors (Notch1 Notch2 and Notch3) and recombination signal binding protein for immunoglobulin κ j region (RBPJ) were increased both at gene and protein levels in BTBR spleens and thymi. Notch downstream transcriptional factors, Tbx21, Gata3, Rorc and FoxP3 were increased in BTBR spleens, Gata3 and FoxP3 were increased in BTBR thymi and BTBR mice have a high blood CD4/CD8 T cell ratio. Reduced nucleotide excision repair ability in BTBR spleens was associated with increased 8-oxoguanine, Ogg1 inhibition, an enhanced level of apoptotic thymocytes and higher expression of GATA-3. Ogg1 inhibition and enhanced GATA-3 expression also were detected in BTBR brain. Notch signal promoted mitochondrial dynamics switching to enhanced fission with an increased number and mass of mitochondria in immune cells of BTBR mice, but not in livers and brains. Constitutive influences on mitochondria exist in this mouse model of autism spectrum disorder; similar outcomes from environmental exposures might occur perinatally in susceptible individuals to affect the development of autism.

OUP accepted manuscript

Mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy has emerged as a great potential approach to treat individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), a group of developmental disabilities characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED), holding earlier developing characteristics, have immune-modulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. To investigate whether SHED transplantation can rescue autistic-like symptoms in SHANK3 mutant beagle dogs, 12 SHANK3 mutant beagle dogs were randomly assigned into 2 groups according to their behavior evaluated by social interaction tests. Six mutant dogs received 6 intravenous infusions of SHED and were followed up for 3 months by testing social interaction and inflammatory cytokine levels. We found that infusion of SHED significantly improved impaired social novel preference of SHANK3 mutant beagle dogs at 1- and 3-month follow-ups. Social intimacies (following, sniffing, and licking) between mutant beagle dogs and human experimenters were partly improved. Stressed tail posture, indicating social stress, was also significantly alleviated. In addition, we showed that the levels of serum interferon-γ and interleukin-10 were notably increased and decreased, respectively, in SHANK3 mutant beagle dogs. Infusion of SHED was able to rescue altered interferon-γ and interleukin-10 levels. We failed to observe any serious adverse events after infusion of SHED. In summary, SHED transplantation may be a safe and effective therapy for ASD. The correction in the levels of serum interferon-γ and interleukin-10 may serve as an index to predict autistic severity and therapeutic outcomes.