Maternal stress during pregnancy induces depressive-like behavior only in female offspring and correlates to their hippocampal Avp and Oxt receptor expression

Intraperitoneal administration of arginine vasotocin (AVT) induces anorexigenic and anxiogenic actions via the brain V1a receptor-signaling pathway in the tiger puffer, Takifugu rubripes

Arginine vasotocin (AVT) is produced mainly in the hypothalamus and as a neurohypophyseal hormone peripherally regulates water-mineral balance in sub-mammals. In addition, AVT-containing neurons innervate several areas of the brain, and AVT also acts centrally as both an anorexigenic and anxiogenic factor in goldfish. However, it is unclear whether these central effects operate in fish in general. In the present study, therefore, we investigated AVT-like immunoreactivity in the brain of the tiger puffer, a cultured fish with a high market value in Japan and also a representative marine teleost species, focusing particularly on whether AVT affects food intake and psychomotor activity. AVT-like immunoreactivity was distributed higher in the ventral region of the telencephalon, the hypothalamus and midbrain. Intraperitoneal (IP) administration of AVT at 100 pmol g-1 body weight (BW) increased the immunoreactivity of phosphorylated ribosomal proteinS6 (RPS6), a neuronal activation marker, in the telencephalon and diencephalon, decreased food consumption and enhanced thigmotaxis. AVT-induced anorexigenic and anxiogenic actions were blocked by IP co-injection of a V1a receptor (V1aR) antagonist, Manning compound (MC) at 300 pmol g-1 BW. These results suggest that AVT acts as an anorexigenic and anxiogenic factor via the V1aR-signaling pathway in the tiger puffer brain.

Prenatal and postnatal influences on behavioral development in a mouse model of preconceptional stress

Depression during pregnancy is detrimental for the wellbeing of the expectant mother and can exert long-term consequences on the offspring's development and mental health. In this context, both the gestational environment and the postpartum milieu may be negatively affected by the depressive pathology. It is, however, challenging to assess whether the contributions of prenatal and postnatal depression exposure are distinct, interactive, or cumulative, as it is unclear whether antenatal effects are due to direct effects on fetal development or because antenatal symptoms continue postnatally. Preclinical models have sought to answer this question by implementing stressors that induce a depressive-like state in the dams during pregnancy and studying the effects on the offspring. The aim of our present study was to disentangle the contribution of direct stress in utero from possible changes in maternal behavior in a novel model of preconceptional stress based on social isolation rearing (SIR). Using a cross-fostering paradigm in this model, we show that while SIR leads to subtle changes in maternal behavior, the behavioral changes observed in the offspring are driven by a complex interaction between sex, and prenatal and postnatal maternal factors. Indeed, male offspring are more sensitive to the prenatal environment, as demonstrated by behavioral and transcriptional changes driven by their birth mother, while females are likely affected by more complex interactions between the pre and the postpartum milieu, as suggested by the important impact of their surrogate foster mother. Taken together, our findings suggest that male and female offspring have different time-windows and behavioral domains of susceptibility to maternal preconceptional stress, and thus underscore the importance of including both sexes when investigating the mechanisms that mediate the negative consequences of exposure to such stressor.

The hyperexcitability of laterodorsal tegmentum cholinergic neurons accompanies adverse behavioral and cognitive outcomes of prenatal stress

Exposure to prenatal stress (PS) leads to the offspring's vulnerability towards the development of cognitive and behavioral disorders. Laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT) is a part of the brainstem cholinergic system that is believed to play a pivotal role in the stress-associated progression of anxiety, memory impairment, and addictive behaviors. In this study, we aimed to investigate the electrophysiological alterations of LDT cholinergic neurons and its accompanied behavioral and cognitive outcomes in the offspring of mice exposed to physical or psychological PS. Swiss Webster mice were exposed to physical or psychological stress on the tenth day of gestation. Ex vivo investigations in LDT brain slices of adolescent male offspring were performed to evaluate the effects of two stressor types on the activity of cholinergic neurons. Open field test, elevated plus maze, passive avoidance test, and conditioned place preference were conducted to assess behavioral and cognitive alterations in the offspring. The offspring of both physical and psychological PS-exposed mice exhibited increased locomotor activity, anxiety-like behavior, memory impairment, and preference to morphine. In both early- and late-firing cholinergic neurons of the LDT, stressed groups demonstrated higher firing frequency, lower adaptation ratio, decreased action potential threshold, and therefore increased excitability compared to the control group. The findings of the present study suggest that the hyperexcitability of the cholinergic neurons of LDT might be involved in the development of PS-associated anxiety-like behaviors, drug seeking, and memory impairment.

Effects of maternal hypertension on cord blood Arginine vasopressin receptor expression

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) signaling is altered in preeclampsia and physiologic stress. AVP is implicated in fluid homeostasis and cardiovascular (CV) function, which is disrupted in some progeny from preeclamptic pregnancies. However, whether altered fetal AVP signaling occurs in preeclampsia is unknown. Here, we measured CV-related transcripts (e.g., AVP receptors) in cord blood via quantitative PCR. Chronic hypertension decreased AVPR1b, AVPR2, OXTR, LNPEP, and CUL5. AVPR1a, AVPR1b, and AVPR2 were decreased while OXTR was increased in preeclamptic cord blood. In sum, we found prenatal exposure to hypertension in pregnancy alters fetal AVP signaling and may thereby prime offspring CV disease risk.

Prenatal stress induces a depressive-like phenotype in adolescent rats: The key role of TGF-β1 pathway

Stressful experiences early in life, especially in the prenatal period, can increase the risk to develop depression during adolescence. However, there may be important qualitative and quantitative differences in outcome of prenatal stress (PNS), where some individuals exposed to PNS are vulnerable and develop a depressive-like phenotype, while others appear to be resilient. PNS exposure, a well-established rat model of early life stress, is known to increase vulnerability to depression and a recent study demonstrated a strong interaction between transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) gene and PNS in the pathogenesis of depression. Moreover, it is well-known that the exposure to early life stress experiences induces brain oxidative damage by increasing nitric oxide levels and decreasing antioxidant factors. In the present work, we examined the role of TGF-β1 pathway in an animal model of adolescent depression induced by PNS obtained by exposing pregnant females to a stressful condition during the last week of gestation. We performed behavioral tests to identify vulnerable or resilient subjects in the obtained litters (postnatal day, PND > 35) and we carried out molecular analyses on hippocampus, a brain area with a key role in the pathogenesis of depression. We found that female, but not male, PNS adolescent rats exhibited a depressive-like behavior in forced swim test (FST), whereas both male and female PNS rats showed a deficit of recognition memory as assessed by novel object recognition test (NOR). Interestingly, we found an increased expression of type 2 TGF-β1 receptor (TGFβ-R2) in the hippocampus of both male and female resilient PNS rats, with higher plasma TGF-β1 levels in male, but not in female, PNS rats. Furthermore, PNS induced the activation of oxidative stress pathways by increasing inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1) and NOX2 levels in the hippocampus of both male and female PNS adolescent rats. Our data suggest that high levels of TGF-β1 and its receptor TGFβ-R2 can significantly increase the resiliency of adolescent rats to PNS, suggesting that TGF-β1 pathway might represent a novel pharmacological target to prevent adolescent depression in rats.

Early-life maternal deprivation affects the mother-offspring relationship in domestic pigs, as well as the neuroendocrine development and coping behavior of piglets

Early-life adversity may have programming effects on the psychological and physiological development of offspring. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) are an excellent model species for studying these effects because of their many physiological similarities to humans. Piglets from 10 sows were subjected to daily 2-h maternal deprivation on postnatal days (PND) 2–15 alone (DA) or in a group of littermates (DG). Control piglets (C) from 10 sows stayed with their mothers. Mother-offspring interaction, milk oxytocin, and cortisol were analyzed. An open-field/novel-object (OF/NO) test was performed with piglets on PNDs 16 and 40. Plasma cortisol and immune parameters were determined on PND 5 and 16. Two piglets from each group and sow were sacrificed on PND 20 and stress-related gene expression in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as splenic lymphocyte proliferative abilities, were examined. The milk cortisol of sows increased during the first separation of mother and offspring on the second day of lactation, whereas milk oxytocin did not change. The increase in cortisol by the OF/NO test on PND 16 was greater in C piglets than in DA and DG ones. DA piglets showed less agitated behavior than DG and C piglets in the OF/NO test at PND 16, but appeared more fearful. On PND 40, DA piglets showed more arousal than DG and C piglets in the OF/NO test. Neither plasma IgA nor N/L ratios in blood nor mitogen-induced proliferation of spleen lymphocytes were affected by deprivation. We found a higher mRNA expression of CRHR1 in the hypothalamus and a higher expression of MR in the hippocampus in DA piglets than in DG ones. The expression of GR, MR, and CRHR1 genes in the PFC was reduced by maternal deprivation, however, the expression of arginine vasopressin and oxytocin receptors was not affected. Repeated maternal deprivation induces sustained effects on stress reactivity and behavior of domestic piglets. Some of these effects were buffered by the presence of littermates. In addition, we found sex-specific differences in behavior and gene expression.

Chronic Piromelatine Treatment Alleviates Anxiety, Depressive Responses and Abnormal Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity in Prenatally Stressed Male and Female Rats

The prenatal stress (PNS) model in rodents can induce different abnormal responses that replicate the pathophysiology of depression. We applied this model to evaluate the efficacy of piromelatine (Pir), a novel melatonin analog developed for the treatment of insomnia, in male and female offspring. Adult PNS rats from both sexes showed comparable disturbance associated with high levels of anxiety and depressive responses. Both males and females with PNS demonstrated impaired feedback inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis compared to the intact offspring and increased glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus. However, opposite to female offspring, the male PNS rats showed an increased expression of mineralocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus. Piromelatine (20 mg/kg, i.p., for 21 days injected from postnatal day 60) attenuated the high anxiety level tested in the open field, elevated plus-maze and light-dark test, and depressive-like behavior in the sucrose preference and the forced swimming tests in a sex-specific manner. The drug reversed to control level stress-induced increase of plasma corticosterone 120 min later in both sexes. Piromelatine also corrected to control level the PNS-induced alterations of corticosteroid receptors only in male offspring. Our findings suggest that the piromelatine treatment exerts beneficial effects on impaired behavioral responses and dysregulated HPA axis in both sexes, while it corrects the PNS-induced changes in the hippocampal corticosteroid receptors only in male offspring.

Sex-Dependent Effects of Piromelatine Treatment on Sleep-Wake Cycle and Sleep Structure of Prenatally Stressed Rats

Prenatal stress (PNS) impairs the circadian rhythm of the sleep/wake cycle. The melatonin (MT) analogue Piromelatine (Pir) was designed for the treatment of insomnia. The present study aimed to explore effects of Pir on circadian rhythmicity, motor activity, and sleep structure in male and female rats with a history of prenatal stress (PNS). In addition, we elucidated the role of MT receptors and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to ascertain the underlying mechanism of the drug. Pregnant rats were exposed to different stressors from day seven until birth. Piromelatine (20 mg/kg/day/14 days) was administered to young adult offspring. Home-cage locomotion, electroencephalographic (EEG) and electromyographic (EMG) recordings were conducted for 24 h. Offspring treated with vehicle showed sex-and phase-dependent disturbed circadian rhythm of motor activity and sleep/wake cycle accompanied by elevated rapid eye movement (REM) pattern and theta power and diminished non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and delta power. While Pir corrected the PNS-induced impaired sleep patterns, the MT receptor antagonist luzindol suppressed its effects in male and female offspring. In addition, Pir increased the BDNF expression in the hippocampus in male and female offspring with PNS. Our findings suggest that the beneficial effect of Pir on PNS-induced impairment of sleep/wake cycle circadian rhythm and sleep structure is exerted via activation of MT receptors and enhanced BDNF expression in the hippocampus in male and female offspring.

The role of maternal exercise on placental, behavioral and genetic alterations induced by prenatal stress

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of treadmill maternal exercise on alterations induced by prenatal stress in neonatal mice. Female and male Balb/c mice were divided into five groups: control (CON), prenatal restraint stress (PNS), prenatal restraint stress and physical exercise before pregnancy (PNS + EX1), prenatal restraint stress and physical exercise during pregnancy (PNS + EX2), and prenatal restraint stress and physical exercise before and during pregnancy (PNS + EX3). Exercise was performed using a treadmill, at a speed of 10 m/min, for 60 minutes, 5 days a week. Maternal behavior was assessed on days 3, 4 and 5 postpartum (PPD). Placental gene expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), 11-β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 (11β-HSD2), 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1A (5HT_1AR), and corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) were analyzed. In neonatal mice, the gene expression of GR, mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), CRHR1, 5HTr1, oxytocin Receptor 1 (OXTr1), tropomyosin related kinase B (TRκB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor exon I (BDNF I), and BDNF IV was analyzed in the brain (PND0) and hippocampus (PND10). Maternal exercise improved (p < 0.05) maternal care. In the placenta, maternal exercise prevented (p < 0.01) the increase in GR expression caused by PNS. In the brain from PND0, exercise before pregnancy prevented (p = 0.002) the decreased CRHR1 expression promoted by PNS. In the hippocampus of PND10 males, PNS decreased (p = 0.0005) GR expression, and exercise before pregnancy prevented (p = 0.003) this effect. In PND10 females, maternal exercise prevented (p < 0.05) the PNS-induced increase in MR expression. PNS + EX2 males showed increased (p < 0.01) BDNF I gene expression and PNS + EX1 females demonstrated increased (p = 0.03) BDNF IV expression. In conclusion, maternal physical exercise may play a role in modulating maternal-fetal health and may contribute to preventing neurodevelopmental changes induced by prenatal stress.

Maternal stress and the maternal microbiome have sex-specific effects on offspring development and aggressive behavior in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)

The gut microbiome, a community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses, interacts with many physiological systems to affect behavior. Prenatal experiences, including exposure to maternal stress and different maternal microbiomes, are important sources of organismal variation that can affect offspring development. These physiological systems do not act in isolation and can have long-term effects on offspring development and behavior. Here we investigated the interactive effects of maternal stress and manipulations of the maternal microbiome on offspring development and social behavior using Siberian hamsters, Phodopus sungorus. We exposed pregnant females to either a social stressor, antibiotics, both the social stressor and antibiotics, or no treatment (i.e., control) over the duration of their pregnancy and quantified male and female offspring growth, gut microbiome composition and diversity, stress-induced cortisol concentrations, and social behavior. Maternal antibiotic exposure altered the gut microbial communities of male and female offspring. Maternal treatment also had sex-specific effects on aspects of offspring development and aggressive behavior. Female offspring produced by stressed mothers were more aggressive than other female offspring. Female, but not male, offspring produced by mothers exposed to the combined treatment displayed low levels of aggression, suggesting that alteration of the maternal microbiome attenuated the effects of prenatal stress in a sex-specific manner. Maternal treatment did not affect non-aggressive behavior in offspring. Collectively, our study offers insight into how maternal systems can interact to affect offspring in sex-specific ways and highlights the important role of the maternal microbiome in mediating offspring development and behavior.

Early-Life Stress Reprograms Stress-Coping Abilities in Male and Female Juvenile Rats

Prenatal stress (PS) is a major risk factor for the development of emotional disorders in adulthood that may be mediated by an altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress. Although the early onset of stress-related disorders is recognized as a major public health problem, to date, there are relatively few studies that have examined the incidence of early-life stressors in younger individuals. In this study, we assessed PS impact on the stress-coping response of juvenile offspring in behavioral tests and in the induced molecular changes in the hippocampus. Furthermore, we assessed if pregnancy stress could be driving changes in patterns of maternal behavior during early lactation. We found that PS modified stress-coping abilities of both sex offspring. In the hippocampus, PS increased the expression of bdnf-IV and crfr1 and induced sex difference changes on glucocorticoids and BDNF mRNA receptor levels. PS changed the hippocampal epigenetic landscape mainly in male offspring. Stress during pregnancy enhanced pup-directed behavior of stressed dams. Our study indicates that exposure to PS, in addition to enhanced maternal behavior, induces dynamic neurobehavioral variations at juvenile ages of the offspring that should be considered adaptive or maladaptive, depending on the characteristics of the confronting environment. Our present results highlight the importance to further explore risk factors that appear early in life that will be important to allow timely prevention strategies to later vulnerability to stress-related disorders.

Oxytocin receptor is a potential biomarker of the hyporesponsive HPA axis subtype of PTSD and might be modulated by HPA axis reactivity traits in humans and mice

This study aimed to identify yet unavailable blood biomarkers for the responsive and the hyporesponsive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis subtypes of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). As, I, we recently discovered the intranasal neuropeptide oxytocin to reduce experimentally provoked PTSD symptoms, II, expression of its receptor (OXTR) has hitherto not been assessed in PTSD patients, and III, oxytocin and OXTR have previously been related to the HPA axis, we considered both as suitable candidates. During a Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), we compared serum oxytocin and blood OXTR mRNA concentrations between female PTSD patients, their HPA axis reactivity subtypes and sex and age-matched healthy controls (HC). At baseline, both candidates differentiated the hyporesponsive HPA axis subtype from HC, however, only baseline OXTR mRNA discriminated also between subtypes. Furthermore, in the hyporesponsive HPA axis subgroup, OXTR mRNA levels correlated with PTSD symptoms and changed markedly during the TSST. To assess the influence of (traumatic) stress on the cerebral expression of oxytocin and its receptor and to test their suitability as biomarkers for the mouse PTSD-like syndrome, we then analyzed oxytocin, its mRNA (Oxt) and Oxtr mRNA in three relevant brain regions and Oxt in blood of a PTSD mouse model. To further explore the HPA axis reactivity subtype dependency of OXTR, we compared cerebral OXTR protein expression between mice exhibiting two different HPA axis reactivity traits, i.e., FK506 binding protein 51 knockout vs. wildtype mice. In summary, blood OXTR mRNA emerged as a potential biomarker of the hyporesponsive HPA axis PTSD subtype and prefrontal cortical Oxtr and Oxt of the mouse PTSD-like syndrome. Moreover, we found first translational evidence for a HPA axis responsivity trait-dependent regulation of OXTR expression. The lack of a cohort of the (relatively rare) hyporesponsive HPA axis subtype of HC is a limitation of our study.

Perinatal fluoxetine dose-dependently affects prenatal stress-induced neurobehavioural abnormalities, HPA-axis functioning and underlying brain alterations in rat dams and their offspring

Both untreated and SSRI antidepressant treated maternal depression during the perinatal period can pose both short-and long-term health risks to the offspring. Therefore, it is essential to have an effective SSRI treatment consisting of the lowest effective dose beneficial to the mother, without causing adverse effects on offspring development. The effects of prenatal stress on neurobehavioral outcomes were studied in the pregnant and lactating rat dam, and her offspring. Furthermore, stressed dams were treated with different doses of fluoxetine (FLX; 5, 10and 25 mg/kg) during pregnancy and the postpartum period. We found that prenatal stress-induced anxiety-and depressive-like behaviour and increased HPA-axis function in pregnant and postpartum dams, and in offspring. Maternal stress impaired object recognition but did not affect spatial memory in offspring. Prenatal stress decreased whole-brain serotonin and brain-derived-neurotrophic-factor, and increased interleukin-17 and malondialdehyde, but did not affect oxytocin and interleukin-6 in the brains of offspring. Maternal treatment with 5 mg/kg FLX during the perinatal period did not rescue any stress-induced anxiety/depressive-like behaviour in the pregnant and postpartum dam and had only a few rescuing effects in offspring. Maternal FLX treatment with 10 mg/kg did rescue most stress-induced anxiety-and depressive-like behaviour or HPA-axis-function in dams and offspring. The highest dose tested, 25 mg/kg FLX, had the rescuing properties in dams while having the same, or an even greater, detrimental effect as prenatal stress on offspring behaviour and molecular alterations in the brain. Our results show prenatal stress rescuing properties for FLX treatment in the pregnant and postpartum dam, with dose-dependent effects on the offspring.

The association of oxytocin with major depressive disorder: role of confounding effects of antidepressants

Major depressive disorder is a genetic susceptible disease, and a psychiatric syndrome with a high rate of incidence and recurrence. Because of its complexity concerning etiology and pathogenesis, the cure rate of first-line antidepressants is low. In recent years, accumulative evidences revealed that oxytocin act as a physiological or pathological participant in a variety of complex neuropsychological activities, including major depressive disorder. Six electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, CNKI, and Wanfang) were employed for researching relevant publications. At last, 226 articles were extracted. The current review addresses the correlation of the oxytocin system and major depressive disorder. Besides, we summarize the mechanisms by which the oxytocin system exerts potential antidepressant effects, including regulating neuronal activity, influencing neuroplasticity and regeneration, altering neurotransmitter release, down regulating hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, and genetic effects. Increasing evidence shows that oxytocin and its receptor gene may play a potential role in major depressive disorder. Future research should focus on the predictive ability of the oxytocin system as a biomarker, as well as its role in targeted prevention and early intervention of major depressive disorder.

Prenatal Stress Impairs Postnatal Learning and Memory Development via Disturbance of the cGMP-PKG Pathway and Oxidative Phosphorylation in the Hippocampus of Rats

Clinical and animal studies have found that prenatal stress can lead to pathological changes in embryos and fetuses. However, the mechanisms through which this occurs have not been made clear. In the present study, pregnant rats were subjected to chronic psychological stress during gestational days using an improved communication box system, and the changes in behavioral performance and proteins in the hippocampus of offspring were analyzed. It was found that prenatal stress caused postnatal growth retardation and impairment in spatial learning and memory. Furthermore, in isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation-based proteomics analyses, 158 significantly differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were found between the two groups. Further analyses showed that these DEPs are involved in different molecular function categories and participate in several biological processes, such as energy metabolism, learning or memory, and synaptic plasticity. Moreover, the enrichment of pathways showed that the learning and memory impairment was primarily connected with the cyclic guanosine monophosphate–protein kinase G (cGMP–PKG) pathway and oxidative phosphorylation. At the same time, the cGMP level and the expression of PKG protein were significantly decreased, and the neuronal mitochondria appeared to have a swollen and irregular shape in the hippocampus of offspring of stressed rats. These results suggest that the chronic psychological stress that pregnant rats were subjected to during gestational days may have impaired the spatial learning and memory of offspring. This affected the hippocampal oxidative phosphorylation and inhibited the cGMP–PKG pathway.

Increased persistence of avoidance behaviour and social deficits with L.rhamnosus JB-1 or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment following social defeat

Chronic social defeat (CSD) in mice has been suggested as a model for studying post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Our previous work indicated that exposure to Lactobacillus rhamnosus JB-1 (JB-1) during CSD can attenuate subsequent behavioural and immune disruption, suggesting a potential for microbe based therapeutic approaches in PTSD. In the current study, we assessed the ability of JB-1 to mitigate the behavioral consequences of CSD when treatment is instigated in the early post-stress period and compared the probiotic effects with those of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), sertraline. JB-1 or sertraline were administered orally 48 h following 10-days of CSD in male C57BL/6 mice. Contrary to our hypothesis of a beneficial effect, 30 days of treatment with either JB-1 or sertraline increased the persistence of both aggressor avoidance and reduced sociability in defeated mice. This was accompanied by lower hippocampal mRNA expression for genes related to fear memory. Defeated mice treated with either JB-1 or sertraline also exhibited systemic immune changes, with a decrease in Th1 cells, activated monocytes, and the monocyte chemoattractant CCL2. This study identifies potentially detrimental effects of both JB-1 and sertraline if administered in the early post-trauma period and suggests caution should be applied when considering psychobiotic or SSRI based approaches for early intervention in trauma related psychiatric disorders.

Female HPA axis displays heightened sensitivity to pre-pubertal stress

Early life stress (ELS) is a risk factor in the development of psychiatric disorders. The underlying biological mechanisms governing this phenomenon are not fully understood, but dysregulation of stress responses is likely to play a key role. Males and females differ in their propensity to develop psychiatric disorders, with far higher rates of anxiety, major depressive disorder, affective disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder found in women. We hypothesized that sex differences in response to ELS may play a crucial role in differential vulnerability between the sexes. To test this, we evaluated the consequences of pre-pubertal stress (PPS) on the HPA axis in adult female and male Lister Hooded rats. PPS animals were exposed to swim, restraint and elevated platform stress on postnatal days 25-27, controls remained in their home cage. Once adult, animals were either a) sacrificed directly and brains collected or b) sacrificed 20 minutes or 1 week after a social test and trunk blood collected. In the female hippocampal formation, PPS increased expression of FKBP5 and AVPR1a. In the female prefrontal cortex, PPS resulted in increased glucocorticoid receptor expression, increased glucocorticoid:mineralocorticoid (GR:MR) receptor expression ratio and decreased AVPR1a expression. Females exposed to PPS did not show the normal rise in blood corticosterone levels following a social interaction test. In contrast, PPS did not alter the expression of oxytocin or oxytocin receptors, and no effects of PPS were seen in males. However, striking sex differences were found. Females had higher oxytocin receptor expression in the prefrontal cortex and AVPR1a and oxytocin expression in the hypothalamus, whereas males demonstrated higher expression of GR, MR, GR:MR, FKBP5 and oxytocin receptor in the hypothalamus. These results demonstrate heightened reactivity of the female HPA axis to PPS and may help explain why in humans females display an increased susceptibility to certain stress-related psychopathologies.LAY SUMMARYWomen are at greater risk of developing several psychiatric illnesses. Using a rodent model, we show that the female stress system is more reactive to the lasting effects of early life stress. This heightened reactivity of the female stress response may help explain why women are at a greater risk of developing psychiatric disorders.

Intracerebroventricular administration of arginine vasotocin (AVT) induces anorexigenesis and anxiety-like behavior in goldfish

Arginine vasotocin (AVT) is known as a neurohypophyseal hormone that regulates water- and mineral-balance in non-mammalian vertebrates. Recent studies revealed that AVT also exerts central effects on behavior. The goldfish has several merits for evaluation of behavioral changes. However, there is few information on the behavioral action of AVT in this species. Here we examined the effects of AVT on food intake and psychomotor activity. AVT was administered intracerebroventricularly at 1, 5 and 10 pmol g^-1 body weight (BW). Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of AVT at 5 and 10 pmol g^-1 BW significantly decreased food intake during 30 min after injection and recovery from anesthesia. The AVT-induced anorexigenic action was attenuated by treatment with the AVT receptor V1aR antagonist Manning compound (MC) at 50 pmol g^-1 BW. As the goldfish tends to prefer the lower to the upper area of a tank, we used this preference behavior for assessing psychomotor activity during a 30-min observation period. ICV administration of AVT at 1, 5 and 10 pmol g^-1 BW significantly prolonged the time spent in the lower area, but did not affect locomotor activity in the tank at any dose. The action of AVT was similar to that of the central-type benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist FG-7142 at 10 pmol g^-1 BW. AVT-induced anxiety-like behavior was blocked by treatment with MC at 50 pmol g^-1 BW. These results indicate that AVT affects food intake and psychophysiological status, and also induces anorexigenic- and anxiogenic-like actions via the V1aR-signaling pathway in the goldfish brain.

Stress-induced disturbances along the gut microbiota-immune-brain axis and implications for mental health: Does sex matter?

Women are roughly twice as likely as men to suffer from stress-related disorders, especially major depression and generalized anxiety. Accumulating evidence suggest that microbes inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract (the gut microbiota) interact with the host brain and may play a key role in the pathogenesis of mental illnesses. Here, the possibility that sexually dimorphic alterations along the gut microbiota-immune-brain axis could play a role in promoting this female bias of mood and anxiety disorders will be discussed. This review will also analyze the idea that gut microbes and sex hormones influence each other, and that this reciprocal crosstalk may come to modulate inflammatory players along the gut microbiota-immune-brain axis and influence behavior in a sex-dependent way.