Bioenhancer potential of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa essential oil with antifungal drugs and its mode of action against Candida albicans

Preparation and Characterization of Bael (Aegle marmelos) Leaf Essential Oil Nanoemulsion With Enhanced Antifungal Activity Against Drechslera oryzae

In the current study, bael (Aegle marmelos) leaf essential oil nanoemulsion (BLEON) was formulated by ultrasonication method using varying oil-to-surfactant ratios (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3) and different sonication times (5, 10, and 15 min). The stable nanoemulsions were characterized by measuring particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential by dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique. The most stable formulation with an oil-to-surfactant ratio of 1:3 and a sonication time of 15 min was selected, having minimum particle size (179.6 nm), least PDI (0.101), and maximum negative zeta potential (-24 mV). Stability tests showed that the nanoemulsion was stable for up to 60 days. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis revealed spherical particles having a diameter between 45 and 65 nm. The nanoemulsion showed enhanced antifungal activity compared to the essential oil against Drechslera oryzae (ED50 = 560 µg/mL: minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] = 20 µg/mL) but was ineffective against Fusarium fujikuroi. The time-kill kinetics assay also suggested the effectiveness of the nanoemulsion over the corresponding essential oil against D. oryzae. The nanoemulsion also effectively reduced fungal mitochondrial reductase enzyme activity as visualized by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Thus, BLEON may be used as a natural and safe antifungal agent against D. oryzae.

Exploring pharmacological potential of Aegle marmelos: integrating traditional knowledge with modern physiology and molecular biology

Aegle marmelos is a plant that holds considerable medicinal value. It is indigenous to India, Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and various Southeast Asian countries. The sacred tree, which has its historical roots in the Vedic era dating back to 2000 B.C., holds a significant place in various traditional systems of medicine due to its extensive therapeutic properties that have been recognized over time. The plant exhibits a diverse array of bioactive compounds, namely flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, carotenoids, and coumarins, which are present in various parts of the plant, including leaves, flowers, bark, and fruit. These compounds are responsible for the plant's extensive range of medicinal properties. It has been observed that A. marmelos demonstrates various biological activities including anti-proliferative, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-diarrhoeal, and antimicrobial properties. Recent scientific investigations have provided confirmation regarding the effectiveness of the substance under investigation against a wide range of disease-causing microorganisms. These microorganisms include bacteria such as Micrococcus luteus and Streptococcus faecalis, as well as fungi like Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans. The phytochemical profile of A. marmelos includes the presence of marmenol, marmin, marmelosin, and several other compounds that are known to contribute to its medicinal properties. The present review aims to comprehensively synthesize the existing body of research on Aegle marmelos, focusing on its botanical characteristics, phytochemical composition, and wide-ranging medicinal applications.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-025-01586-2.

Phyto-pharmacological Potential of Aegle marmelos (L.) for Neurological Disorders: Progress and Prospects

BACKGROUND

Aegle marmelos, an Indian plant, has been extensively utilized by the people of the Indian subcontinent over about 5000 years. The leaves, bark, roots, and fruits, including seeds, are widely used to cure a variety of diseases in the Indian traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda, along with numerous folk medicines. By revealing the existence of significant bioactive chemicals, modern research has effectively substantiated the therapeutic effects of bael.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to review the literature regarding A. marmelos geographical distribution, morphology, therapeutic benefits, and phytochemicals found in the bael leaves, fruits, and other parts of the plant that offer a wide range of pharmacological applications in neurological disorders.

METHODOLOGY

A thorough literature search was conducted using five computerized databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, and Wiley Online Library (WOL), by using standard keywords "A. marmelos," "Geographical distribution," "Morphological description," "Ethnobotanical Uses," "Phytoconstituents" and "Neuroprotective activities" for review papers published between 1975 and 2023. A small number of earlier review articles focused on phyto-pharmacological potential of Aegle marmelos (L.) for neurological disorders.

RESULTS

According to some research, Aegle marmelos extracts potentially have neuroprotective benefits. This is due to its capacity to alter cellular mechanisms that cause neuronal damage.

CONCLUSION

Neurodegenerative illnesses usually induce permanent neuronal network loss overall the brain along with the spinal cord (CNS), resulting in chronic functional impairments. The review summarizes the multiple aspects and processes of A. marmelos extract and its components in several models of neurodegenerative diseases such as anxiety, epilepsy, depression, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and others. MDA, nitrite, TNF-, and IL-6 levels were dramatically elevated, whereas glutathione levels were significantly lowered in the hippocampus of STZ-treated rats. Furthermore, STZ-treated rats showed a substantial drop in catalase activity and an increase in AChE activity, indicating cholinergic hypofunction and neuronal injury. The neuroprotective ability of A. marmelos against STZ-induced oxidative stress and cognitive loss in rats suggests that it has therapeutic relevance in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Advances in Controllable Release Essential Oil Microcapsules and Their Promising Applications

Essential oils (EOs) have emerged as natural and popular ingredients used in the preparation of safe and sustainable products because of their unique characteristics, such as antibacterial and antioxidant activity. However, due to their high volatility, poorly solubility in water, and susceptibility to degradation and oxidation, the application of EOs is greatly limited. One of the promising strategies for overcoming these restrictions is encapsulation, which involves in the entrapment of EOs inside biocompatible materials to utilize their controllable release and good bioavailability. In this review, the microencapsulation of the controllable release EOs and their applications are investigated. The focus is on the antimicrobial mechanism of various EOs on different bacteria and fungi, release mechanism of microencapsulated EOs, and preparation research progress of the controllable EOs microcapsules. In addition, their applications are introduced in relation to the food, textiles, agriculture, and medical fields.