Polymeric graphene oxide nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin for combined photothermal and chemotherapy in triple negative breast cancer

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems: opportunities and challenges in the treatment of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC)

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is an aggressive malignancy characterized by limited treatment options and poor prognosis. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance cancer therapy efficacy by improving drug targeting, reducing toxicity, and enabling multifunctional applications. This review highlights some key types of nanoparticles, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, dendrimers, and quantum dots, which could effectively improve the delivery of various drugs used in chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, offering more precise and effective treatment options. With the ability to improve drug stability and overcome biological barriers, nanoparticle-based systems represent a transformative strategy for ESCC treatment. Despite some challenges, such as biocompatibility and scalability, the future of nanoparticle-based drug delivery holds great promise, particularly in the development of personalized nanomedicine and novel therapeutic approaches targeting the tumor microenvironment. With ongoing advancements, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems hold immense potential to revolutionize ESCC treatment and improve patient outcomes.

The investigation of the interaction of warangalone with transferrin as a therapeutic biological macromolecule and the formation of a protein-ligand nanocomplex with superior anticancer activity against lung cancer cells

Though warangalone has shown anticancer properties against breast cancer cells, its colloidal stability and therapeutic index ought to be improved using a potential strategy, especially via protein-based (nano)carriers. In this research, transferrin was used as a plasma protein for the development of the warangalone-transferrin NPs. To investigate the mechanism underlying the formation of this complex, the interaction between warangalone and transferrin, as well as transferrin NPs, was analyzed using spectroscopic methods. The anticancer properties of warangalone and warangalone-transferrin NPs in lung cancer were subsequently evaluated. The findings showed that the hydrodynamic size, PDI, and zeta potential values of transferrin NPs were 122.4 ± 12.38 nm, 0.210, and -23.40 ± 3.28 mV, respectively. The association between warangalone and transferrin NP showed a strong binding strength (log Kb = 5.44 ± 0.07), while this affinity was reduced for the warangalone and the transferrin protein (log Kb = 4.88 ± 0.04). Theoretical research indicated that hydrophobic interactions serve as the main driving forces for the interaction of warangalone and transferrin. Cellular assays showed that the warangalone-transferrin NPs significantly affected cell death in lung cancer cells. This research, by offering promising data, could be highly beneficial for advancing warangalone-transferrin NPs as a promising anticancer platform.

A Comprehensive Review on Bioprinted Graphene-Based Material (GBM)-Enhanced Scaffolds for Nerve Guidance Conduits

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) pose significant challenges to recovery, often resulting in impaired function and quality of life. To address these challenges, nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) are being developed as effective strategies to promote nerve regeneration by providing a supportive framework that guides axonal growth and facilitates reconnection of severed nerves. Among the materials being explored, graphene-based materials (GBMs) have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique properties. Their unique properties-such as high mechanical strength, excellent electrical conductivity, and favorable biocompatibility-make them ideal for applications in nerve repair. The integration of 3D printing technologies further enhances the development of GBM-based NGCs, enabling the creation of scaffolds with complex architectures and precise topographical cues that closely mimic the natural neural environment. This customization significantly increases the potential for successful nerve repair. This review offers a comprehensive overview of properties of GBMs, the principles of 3D printing, and key design strategies for 3D-printed NGCs. Additionally, it discusses future perspectives and research directions that could advance the application of 3D-printed GBMs in nerve regeneration therapies.

Biotinylated platinum(IV)-conjugated graphene oxide nanoparticles for targeted chemo-photothermal combination therapy in breast cancer

Graphene oxide (GO) and GO-based nanocomposites are promising in drug delivery and photothermal therapy due to their exceptional near-infrared optical absorption and high specific surface area. In this study, we have effectively conjugated an oxaliplatin (IV) prodrug, PEGylated graphene oxide, and PEGylated biotin (PB) in a single platform for breast cancer treatment. This platform demonstrates promising prospects for targeted drug delivery and the synergistic application of photothermal-chemotherapy when exposed to NIR-laser irradiation. The resulting nanocomposite (GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs) displayed an exceptionally large surface area, minimal particle size (195.7 nm), specific targeting capabilities, a high drug load capacity (43.56 %) and entrapment efficiency (89.48 %) and exhibit excellent photothermal conversion efficiency and photostability when exposed to NIR-laser irradiation (808 nm). The therapeutic effectiveness was assessed both in vitro and in vivo conditions employing human breast cancer cells (MCF-7), mouse mammary gland adenocarcinoma cells (4T1), and 4T1-Luc tumor-bearing mouse models. The findings demonstrated that GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (+L) were highly effective in causing significant cytotoxicity, G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, apoptosis, and photothermal effect. This resulted in a greater percentage of cell death compared to free OX, GO(OX)PEG (1/1/0.2) NPs (±L), and GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (-L). The in vivo therapeutic studies on 4T1-Luc tumor-bearing mice revealed that a combination of GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs (+L) caused complete disappearance of the tumor, no tumor recurrence, prolonged survival, reduced lung metastasis, and mitigated nephrotoxicity. The serum and blood analysis demonstrated minimal systemic toxicity of GO(OX)PB (1/1/0.2) NPs. The developed nanoplatform, in this context, may serve as a potential nanomedicine to address conventional nephrotoxicity in breast cancer and prevent metastasis by combining chemo-photothermal therapy.

F127/chlorin e6-nanomicelles to enhance Ce6 solubility and PDT-efficacy mitigating lung metastasis in melanoma

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is a promising paradigm for treating cancer, especially superficial cancers, including skin and oral cancers. However, the effectiveness of PDT is hindered by the hydrophobicity of photosensitizers. Here, chlorin e6 (Ce6), a hydrophobic photosensitizer, was loaded into pluronic F127 micelles to enhance solubility and improve tumor-specific targeting efficiency. The resulting Ce6@F127 Ms demonstrated a significant increase in solubility and singlet oxygen generation (SOG) efficiency in aqueous media compared to free Ce6. The confocal imaging and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis confirmed the enhanced internalization rate of Ce6@F127 Ms in murine melanoma cell lines (B16F10) and human oral carcinoma cell lines (FaDu). Upon laser irradiation (666 nm), the cellular phototoxicity of Ce6@F127 Ms against B16F10 and FaDu was approximately three times higher than the free Ce6 treatment. The in vivo therapeutic investigations conducted on a murine model of skin cancer demonstrated the ability of Ce6@F127 Ms, when combined with laser treatment, to penetrate solid tumors effectively, which resulted in a significant reduction in tumor volume compared to free Ce6. Further, the Ce6@F127 Ms demonstrated upregulation of TUNEL-positive cells, downregulation of proliferation markers in tumor tissues, and prevention of lung metastasis with insignificant levels of proliferating cells and collagenase, as validated through immunohistochemistry. Subsequent analysis of serum and blood components affirmed the safety and efficacy of Ce6@F127 Ms in mice. Consequently, the developed Ce6@F127 Ms exhibits significant potential for concurrently treating solid tumors and preventing metastasis. The photodynamic formulation holds great clinical translation potential for treating superficial tumors.

Graphene/carbohydrate polymer composites as emerging hybrid materials in tumor therapy and diagnosis

Despite the introduction of various types of treatments for cancer control, cancer therapy faces several challenges such as aggressive behavior, heterogeneous characteristics, and the development of resistance. In contrast, the methods have depended on the creation and formulation of nanoparticles to impede tumor growth. Carbon nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention for cancer therapy, with graphene nanoparticles emerging as promising vehicles for delivering drugs and genes. Moreover, graphene composites can enhance immunotherapy, phototherapy, and combination therapies. Nonetheless, the biocompatibility and toxicity of graphene composites present difficulties. Consequently, this manuscript assesses the alteration of graphene nanocomposites using carbohydrate polymers. Altering graphene composites with carbohydrate polymers such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, and starch can enhance their efficacy in cancer treatment. Furthermore, graphene composites functionalized with carbohydrate polymers for tumor ablation induced by phototherapy. Graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots have been modified with carbohydrate polymers to enhance their therapeutic and diagnostic uses. These nanoparticles can transport gene therapy techniques like siRNA in the treatment of cancer. Despite the breakdown of these nanoparticles within the body, they maintain excellent biosafety and biocompatibility.

Self-propelling, protein-bound magnetic nanobots for efficient in vitro drug delivery in triple negative breast cancer cells

The emergence of self-propelling magnetic nanobots represents a significant advancement in the field of drug delivery. These magneto-nanobots offer precise control over drug targeting and possess the capability to navigate deep into tumor tissues, thereby addressing multiple challenges associated with conventional cancer therapies. Here, Fe-GSH-Protein-Dox, a novel self-propelling magnetic nanobot conjugated with a biocompatible protein surface and loaded with doxorubicin for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), is reported. The self-propulsion of magnetic nanobots occurs due to a catalytic interaction between Fe3O4 nanoparticles and hydrogen peroxide. This interaction results in generation of O2 bubbles and high-speed propulsion in blood serum. Cell entry kinetic studies confirmed higher internalization of the drug into TNBC cells with Fe-GSH-Protein-Dox nanobots, resulting in a lower observed IC50 and higher potential to kill cancer cells compared to free doxorubicin. Moreover, fluorescence imaging studies confirmed an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, leading to maximum cellular damage. Endocytosis studies elucidate the mechanism of cellular internalization, revealing clathrin-mediated endocytosis, while the cell cycle study demonstrates significant cell cycle arrest in the G2-M phase. Thus, the designed protein-conjugated self-propelling magnetic nanobots have the potential to develop into a novel drug delivery platform for clinical applications.

Reactive oxygen species augmented polydopamine-chlorin e6 nanosystem for enhanced chemo/photothermal/photodynamic therapy: A synergistic trimodal combination approach in vitro & in vivo

Amalgamation of near-infrared laser phototherapies with chemotherapy in multi-modal synergistic therapy holds great promise for future precision cancer nanomedicine due to its minimal invasiveness, reduced adverse reactions, and high anticancer efficacy. Herein, CuO nanoparticles were functionalized with photosensitizer molecule, chlorin e6 (Ce6) and coated with polydopamine (PDA) to achieve a drug delivery system (CuO@Ce6-PDA) with photothermal/photodynamic therapy (PTT/PDT). Subsequently, chemical drug PTX was loaded for chemotherapy, and folic acid (FA) serving as cancer-targeting exterior material. Prepared FA@CuO@Ce6-PDA/PTX nanoparticles were nano-sized with favorable biocompatibility, colloidal stability, optimal surface charge, effective PTX loading, and controllable PTX release. In vitro studies on 4T1 cells showed that FA@CuO@Ce6-PDA/PTX had noteworthy synergistic therapeutic antitumour effects featuring chemo/PTT/PDT with IC50 of 50 μg/mL lower than that FA@CuO@Ce6-PDA/PTX without NIR laser irradiation (225 μg/mL). Additionally, FA@CuO@Ce6-PDA/PTX produced intracellular high reactive oxygen species (ROS) in presence of 660 nm laser, altering mitochondrial membrane potential and promoting tumour cell death. In vivo results indicate nanoplatform could accumulate in tumour spots enabling thermal imaging capabilities and exhibit synergistic therapeutic effect if irradiated with NIR laser (808 and 660 nm), evident from in vitro antitumour assay. Therefore, in vitro finding postulates FA@CuO@Ce6-PDA/PTX could be an intriguing nanoplatform for Chemo/PTT/PDT-based combination therapy.

Neurotoxicity of the antineoplastic drugs: "Doxorubicin" as an example

There is an increased prevalence of cancer, and chemotherapy is widely and routinely utilized to manage the majority of cancers; however, administration of chemotherapeutic drugs has faced limitations concerning the "off-target" cytotoxicity. Chemobrain and impairment of neurocognitive functions have been observed in a significant fraction of cancer patients or survivors and reduce their life quality; this could be ascribed to the ability of chemotherapeutic drugs to alter the structure and function of the brain. Doxorubicin (DOX), an FDA-approved chemotherapeutic drug with therapeutic effectiveness, is commonly used to treat several carcinomas clinically. DOX-triggered neurotoxicity is the most serious adverse reaction after DOX-induced cardiotoxicity which greatly limits its clinical application. DOX-induced neurotoxicity is a net of multiple mechanisms that have been verified in pre-clinical and clinical studies, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial disruption, apoptosis, autophagy, disruption of neurotransmitters, and impairment of neurogenesis. There is a massive need for developing novel therapeutics for both cancer and DOX-associated neurotoxicity; therefore investigating the implicated mechanisms of DOX-induced chemobrain will reveal multi-targets for novel curative strategies. Recently, various neuroprotective mechanisms were employed to mitigate DOX-mediated neurotoxicity. For this purpose, therapeutic interventions using pharmacological compounds were developed to protect healthy "off-target" tissues from DOX-induced toxicity. In addition, nanoplatforms were used to enable target delivery of DOX; to prevent its deposition in non-cancerous tissues. The aim of the current review is to provide some reference value for the future management of DOX-induced neurotoxicity and to summarize the underlying mechanisms of DOX-mediated neurotoxicity and the potential therapeutic interventions.

Polymeric nanomaterials-based theranostic platforms for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment

Breast cancer, the second leading global cause of death, affects 2.1 million women annually, with an alarming 15 percent mortality rate. Among its diverse forms, Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) emerges as the deadliest, characterized by the absence of hormone receptors. This article underscores the urgent need for innovative treatment approaches in tackling TNBC, emphasizing the transformative potential of polymeric nanomaterials (PNMs). Evolved through nanotechnology, PNMs offer versatile biomedical applications, particularly in addressing the intricate challenges of TNBC. The synthesis methods of PNMs, explored within the tumor microenvironment using cellular models, showcase their dynamic nature in cancer treatment. The article anticipates the future of TNBC therapeutics through the optimization of PNMs-based strategies, integrating them into photothermal (PT), photodynamic (PT), and hyperthermia therapy (HTT), drug delivery, and active tumor targeting strategies. Advancements in synthetic methods, coupled with a nuanced understanding of the tumor microenvironment, hold promise for personalized interventions. Comparative investigations of therapeutic models and a thorough exploration of polymeric nanoplatforms toxicological perspectives become imperative for ensuring efficacy and safety. We have explored the interdisciplinary collaboration between nanotechnology, oncology, and molecular biology as pivotal in translating PNMs innovations into tangible benefits for TNBC patients.

Functionalized graphene oxide NPs as a nanocarrier for drug delivery system in quercetin/ lurbinectedin as dual sensitive therapeutics for A549 lung cancer treatment

Functionalized graphene oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as promising nanocarriers for drug delivery in lung cancer therapy. Quercetin and lurbinectedin encapsulated in graphene oxide (GO) NPs are tested for treating A549 lung cancer cells. Spectroscopic analyses show that graphene oxide functionalization creates a transparent, smooth surface for drug loading. Treatment with quercetin/lurbinectedin-loaded GO NPs induces notable cytotoxic effects in lung cancer cells, as evidenced by distinct morphological alterations and confirmed apoptotic cellular death observed through fluorescence microscopy. Additionally, our study highlights the impact of this approach on lung cancer metastasis, supported by qRT-PCR analysis of relative gene expression levels, including p53, Bax, Caspase-3, and Bcl 2, revealing robust molecular mechanisms underlying therapeutic efficacy against A549 and PC9 cell lines. Flow cytometric analyses further confirm the induction of cellular death in lung cancer cells following administration of the nanoformulation. Our findings show that quercetin/lurbinectedin-loaded GO NPs may be a promising lung cancer treatment, opening new avenues for targeted and effective therapies.

Chitosan oligosaccharide/pluronic F127 micelles exhibiting anti-biofilm effect to treat bacterial keratitis

Mono or dual chitosan oligosaccharide lactate (COL)-conjugated pluronic F127 polymers, FCOL1 and FCOL2 were prepared, self-assembled to form micelles, and loaded with gatifloxacin. The Gati@FCOL1/Gati@FCOL2 micelles preparation process was optimized by QbD analysis. Micelles were characterized thoroughly for size, CMC, drug compatibility, and viscosity by GPC, DLS, SEM, IR, DSC, and XRD. The micelles exhibited good cellular uptake in both monolayers and spheroids of HCEC. The antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of the micelles were evaluated on P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. The anti-quorum sensing activity was explored in P. aeruginosa by analyzing micelles' ability to produce virulence factors, including AHLs, pyocyanin, and the motility behavior of the organism. Gati@FCOL2 Ms was mucoadhesive, cornea-penetrant, antibacterial, and inhibited the biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa and S. aureus significantly more than Gati@FCOL1. A significant reduction in bacterial load in mice cornea was observed after Gati@FCOL2 Ms-treatment to the P. aeruginosa-induced bacterial keratitis-infected mice.

Targeting triple negative breast cancer stem cells using nanocarriers

Breast cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease, encompassing various subtypes characterized by distinct molecular features, clinical behaviors, and treatment responses. Categorization of subtypes is based on the presence or absence of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), leading to subtypes such as luminal A, luminal B, HER2-positive, and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). TNBC, comprising around 20% of all breast cancers, lacks expression of ER, PR, and HER2 receptors, rendering it unresponsive to targeted therapies and presenting significant challenges in treatment. TNBC is associated with aggressive behavior, high rates of recurrence, and resistance to chemotherapy. Tumor initiation, progression, and treatment resistance in TNBC are attributed to breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), which possess self-renewal, differentiation, and tumorigenic potential. Surface markers, self-renewal pathways (Notch, Wnt, Hedgehog signaling), apoptotic protein (Bcl-2), angiogenesis inhibition (VEGF inhibitors), and immune modulation (cytokines, immune checkpoint inhibitors) are among the key targets discussed in this review. However, targeting the BCSC subpopulation in TNBC presents challenges, including off-target effects, low solubility, and bioavailability of anti-BCSC agents. Nanoparticle-based therapies offer a promising approach to target various molecular pathways and cellular processes implicated in survival of BSCS in TNBC. In this review, we explore various nanocarrier-based approaches for targeting BCSCs in TNBC, aiming to overcome these challenges and improve treatment outcomes for TNBC patients. These nanoparticle-based therapeutic strategies hold promise for addressing the therapeutic gap in TNBC treatment by delivering targeted therapies to BCSCs while minimizing systemic toxicity and enhancing treatment efficacy.