Effect of heme oxygenase-1 on ochratoxin A-induced nephrotoxicity in mice

Toxicodynamic of combined mycotoxins: MicroRNAs and acute-phase proteins as diagnostic biomarkers

Mycotoxins, ubiquitous contaminants in food, present a global threat to human health and well-being. Mitigation efforts, such as the implementation of sound agricultural practices, thorough food processing, and the advancement of mycotoxin control technologies, have been instrumental in reducing mycotoxin exposure and associated toxicity. To comprehensively assess mycotoxins and their toxicodynamic implications, the deployment of effective and predictive strategies is imperative. Understanding the manner of action, transformation, and cumulative toxic effects of mycotoxins, moreover, their interactions with food matrices can be gleaned through gene expression and transcriptome analyses at cellular and molecular levels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) govern the expression of target genes and enzymes that play pivotal roles in physiological, pathological, and toxicological responses, whereas acute phase proteins (APPs) exert regulatory control over the metabolism of therapeutic agents, both endogenously and posttranscriptionally. Consequently, this review aims to consolidate current knowledge concerning the regulatory role of miRNAs in the initiation of toxicological pathways by mycotoxins and explores the potential of APPs as biomarkers following mycotoxin exposure. The findings of this research highlight the potential utility of miRNAs and APPs as indicators for the detection and management of mycotoxins in food through biological processes. These markers offer promising avenues for enhancing the safety and quality of food products.

Free heme and hemopexin in acute kidney injury after cardiopulmonary bypass and transient renal ischemia

Free heme is released from hemoproteins during hemolysis or ischemia reperfusion injury and can be pro-inflammatory. Most studies on nephrotoxicity of hemolysis-derived proteins focus on free hemoglobin (fHb) with heme as a prosthetic group. Measurement of heme in its free, non-protein bound, form is challenging and not commonly used in clinical routine diagnostics. In contrast to fHb, the role of free heme in acute kidney injury (AKI) after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) surgery is unknown. Using an apo-horseradish peroxidase-based assay, we identified free heme during CPB surgery as predictor of AKI in patients undergoing cardiac valve replacement (n = 37). Free heme levels during CPB surgery correlated with depletion of hemopexin (Hx), a heme scavenger-protein. In mice, the impact of high levels of circulating free heme on the development of AKI following transient renal ischemia and the therapeutic potential of Hx were investigated. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to bilateral renal ischemia/reperfusion injury for 15 min which did not cause AKI. However, additional administration of free heme in this model promoted overt AKI with reduced renal function, increased renal inflammation, and reduced renal perfusion on functional magnetic resonance imaging. Hx treatment attenuated AKI. Free heme administration to sham operated control mice did not cause AKI. In conclusion, free heme is a predictor of AKI in CPB surgery patients and promotes AKI in transient renal ischemia. Depletion of Hx in CPB surgery patients and attenuation of AKI by Hx in the in vivo model encourage further research on Hx therapy in patients with increased free heme levels during CPB surgery.

Swamp eel aldehyde reductase is involved in response to nitrosative stress via regulating NO/GSH levels

Aldehyde reductase (ALR) plays key roles in the detoxification of toxic aldehyde. In this study, the authors cloned the swamp eel ALR gene using rapid amplification of cDNA ends-PCR (RACE-PCR). The recombinant protein (rALR) was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified using a Ni2+ -NTA chelating column. The rALR protein exhibited efficient reductive activity towards several aldehydes, ketones and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO). A spot assay suggested that the recombinant E. coli strain expressing rALR showed better resistance to formaldehyde, sodium nitrite and GSNO stress, suggesting that swamp eel ALR is crucial for redox homeostasis in vivo. Consequently, the authors investigated the effect of rALR on the oxidative parameters of the liver in swamp eels challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. The hepatic glutathione (GSH) content significantly increased, and the hepatic NO content and levels of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species significantly decreased when rALR was administered. In addition, the mRNA expression of hepatic Alr, HO1 and Nrf2 was significantly upregulated, whereas the expression levels of NF-κB, IL-1β and NOS1 were significantly downregulated in the rALR-administered group. Collectively, these results suggest that ALR is involved in the response to nitrosative stress by regulating GSH/NO levels in the swamp eel.

Effect of heme oxygenase-1 on the differentiation of human myoblasts and the regeneration of murine skeletal muscles after acute and chronic injury

BACKGROUND

Impaired muscle regeneration is a hallmark of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a neuromuscular disorder caused by mutations in the DMD gene encoding dystrophin. The lack of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1, Hmox1), a known anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective enzyme, was shown to aggravate DMD pathology.

METHODS

We evaluated the role of HO-1 overexpression in human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived skeletal muscle cells (hiPSC-SkM) in vitro and in the regeneration process in vivo in wild-type mice. Furthermore, the effect of cobalt protoporphyrin IX (CoPP), a pharmacological inducer of HO-1 expression, on regeneration markers during myogenic hiPSC differentiation and progression of the dystrophic phenotype was analysed in the mdx mouse DMD model.

RESULTS

HO-1 has an impact on hiPSC-SkM generation by decreasing cell fusion capacity and the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and muscle-specific microRNAs (myomiRs). Also, strong induction of HO-1 by CoPP totally abolished hiPSC-SkM differentiation. Injection of HO-1-overexpressing hiPSC-SkM into the cardiotoxin (CTX)-injured muscle of immunodeficient wild-type mice was associated with decreased expression of miR-206 and Myh3 and lower number of regenerating fibers, suggesting some advanced regeneration. However, the very potent induction of HO-1 by CoPP did not exert any protective effect on necrosis, leukocyte infiltration, fibrosis, myofiber regeneration biomarkers, and exercise capacity of mdx mice.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, HO-1 inhibits the expression of differentiation markers in human iPSC-derived myoblasts. Although moderate overexpression of HO-1 in the injected myoblast was associated with partially advanced muscle regeneration, the high systemic induction of HO-1 did not improve muscle regeneration. The appropriate threshold of HO-1 expression must be established for the therapeutic effect of HO-1 on muscle regeneration.

Alleviation of Cadmium Chloride-Induced Acute Genotoxicity, Mitochondrial DNA Disruption, and ROS Generation by Chocolate Coadministration in Mice Liver and Kidney Tissues

Increased human exposure to cadmium compounds through ingesting contaminated food, water, and medications causes negative long-term health effects, which has led to the focus of recent researches on finding natural antioxidants to mitigate cadmium-induced toxicity. Therefore, the current study was undertaken to estimate the possible ameliorative effect of chocolate coadministration on acute cadmium chloride (CdCl₂)-induced genomic instability and mitochondrial DNA damage in mice liver and kidney tissues. Concurrent administration of chocolate with CdCl₂ dramatically decreased the DNA damage level and the number of apoptotic and necrotic cells compared to mice given CdCl₂ alone. Extra-production of reactive oxygen species and increased expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and heat shock proteins genes caused by CdCl₂ administration were also highly decreased after chocolate coadministration. Conversely, chocolate coadministration restored the integrity of the mitochondrial membrane potential disrupted by CdCl₂ administration, as well as the mitochondrial DNA copy number and expression level of heme oxygenase-1 gene were significantly upregulated after chocolate coadministration with CdCl₂. Thus, it was concluded that the coadministration of chocolate alleviated CdCl₂-induced genomic instability and mitochondrial DNA damage through its antioxidative and free radical scavenging capabilities, making chocolate a promising ameliorative product and recommended for inclusion in the daily human diet.

Quercetin ameliorates Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced nephrotoxicity by inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway

This study aimed to evaluate the possible protective effects of quercetin, a natural flavonoid, against nephrotoxicity induced by Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in kidney tissue of rats and human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cell line. The HEK-293 cells were treated with different concentrations of quercetin 24 h before treatment with monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP). Male rats were treated with 200-mg/kg DEHP, 200-mg/kg DEHP plus quercetin (50 and 100 mg/kg), and 200-mg/kg DEHP plus vitamin E (20 mg/kg) for 45 days by gavage. Quercetin treatment reduced cytotoxicity and oxidative damage inducing by MEHP in HEK-293 cells. The in vivo findings showed that 100-mg/kg quercetin significantly suppressed DEHP-induced kidney damage. For exploring the involved mechanisms, the expressions of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) genes were determined via real-time Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. High dose of quercetin significantly decreased the gene expressions of NF-κB and TNFα, whereas the alternations of Nrf2 and HO-1 gene expressions were not significant in quercetin groups in compared with DEHP group. These findings suggested that the suppression of DEHP-induced nephrotoxicity via quercetin is correlated, at least in part, with its potential to regulate NF-κB signaling pathway.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of AFB1 and OTA-toxicity through immunofluorescence and flow cytometry techniques: A systematic review

Due to the globalization, mycotoxins have been considered a major risk to human health being the main contaminants of foodstuffs. Among them, AFB1 and OTA are the most toxic and studied. Therefore, the goal of this review is to deepen the knowledge about the toxicological effects that AFB1 and OTA can induce on human health by using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence techniques in vitro and in vivo models. The examination of the selected reports shows that the majority of them are focused on immunotoxicity while the rest are concerned about nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, neurotoxicity, embryotoxicity, reproductive system, breast, esophageal and lung toxicity. In relation to immunofluorescence analysis, biological processes related to AFB1- and OTA-toxicity were evaluated such as inflammation, neuronal differentiation, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. In flow cytometry analysis, a wide range of assays have been performed across the reviewed studies being apoptosis assay, cell cycle analysis and intracellular ROS measurement the most employed. Although, the toxic effects of AFB1 and OTA have been reported, further research is needed to clarify AFB1 and OTA-mechanism of action on human health.

Ochratoxin A-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Up-to-Date Evidence

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin widely found in various foods and feeds that have a deleterious effect on humans and animals. It has been shown that OTA causes multiorgan toxicity, and the kidney is the main target of OTA among them. This present article aims to review recent and latest intracellular molecular interactions and signaling pathways of OTA-induced nephrotoxicity. Pyroptosis, lipotoxicity, organic anionic membrane transporter, autophagy, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and histone acetyltransferase have been involved in the renal toxicity caused by OTA. Meanwhile, the literature reviewed the alternative or method against OTA toxicity by reducing ROS production, oxidative stress, activating the Nrf2 pathway, through using nanoparticles, a natural flavonoid, and metal supplement. The present review discloses the molecular mechanism of OTA-induced nephrotoxicity, providing opinions and strategies against OTA toxicity.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Kidney Disease

Kidney disease is a general term for heterogeneous damage that affects the function and the structure of the kidneys. The rising incidence of kidney diseases represents a considerable burden on the healthcare system, so the development of new drugs and the identification of novel therapeutic targets are urgently needed. The pathophysiology of kidney diseases is complex and involves multiple processes, including inflammation, autophagy, cell-cycle progression, and oxidative stress. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme involved in the process of heme degradation, has attracted widespread attention in recent years due to its cytoprotective properties. As an enzyme with known anti-oxidative functions, HO-1 plays an indispensable role in the regulation of oxidative stress and is involved in the pathogenesis of several kidney diseases. Moreover, current studies have revealed that HO-1 can affect cell proliferation, cell maturation, and other metabolic processes, thereby altering the function of immune cells. Many strategies, such as the administration of HO-1-overexpressing macrophages, use of phytochemicals, and carbon monoxide-based therapies, have been developed to target HO-1 in a variety of nephropathological animal models, indicating that HO-1 is a promising protein for the treatment of kidney diseases. Here, we briefly review the effects of HO-1 induction on specific immune cell populations with the aim of exploring the potential therapeutic roles of HO-1 and designing HO-1-based therapeutic strategies for the treatment of kidney diseases.

Multidimensional analysis of the epigenetic alterations in toxicities induced by mycotoxins

Mycotoxins contaminate all types of food and feed, threatening human and animal health through food chain accumulation, producing various toxic effects. Increasing attention is being focused on the molecular mechanism of mycotoxin-induced toxicity in all kinds of in vivo and in vitro models. Epigenetic alterations, including DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), and protein post-translational modifications (PTMs), were identified as being involved in various types of mycotoxin-induced toxicity. In this review, the emphasis was on summarizing the epigenetic alterations induced by mycotoxin, including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and deoxynivalenol (DON). This review summarized and analyzed the roles of DNA methylation, ncRNAs, and protein PTMs after mycotoxin exposure based on recently published papers. Moreover, the main research methods and their deficiencies were determined, while some remedial suggestions are proposed. In summary, this review helps to understand better the epigenetic alterations induced by the non-genotoxic effects of mycotoxin.

Nrf2: a main responsive element in cells to mycotoxin-induced toxicity

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-like 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor participating in response to cellular oxidative stress to maintain the redox balance. Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and, in consequence, oxidative stress, are physiological as well as pathological processes which take place in almost all types of cells. Nrf2, in response to oxidative stress, activates expression and production of antioxidant enzymes to remove free radicals. However, the role of Nrf2 seems to be more sophisticated and its increased expression observed in cancer cells allows to draw a conclusion that its role is tissue—and condition—dependent. Interestingly, Nrf2 might also play a crucial role in response to environmental factors like mycotoxins. Thus, the aim of the study is to review the role of Nrf2 in cells exposed to most common mycotoxins to check if the Nrf2 signaling pathway serves as the main response element to mycotoxin-induced oxidative stress in human and animal cells and if it can be a target of detoxifying agents.

Regulation of Complement Activation by Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in Kidney Injury

Heme oxygenase is a cytoprotective enzyme with strong antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties. Its cytoprotective role is mainly attributed to its enzymatic activity, which involves the degradation of heme to biliverdin with simultaneous release of carbon monoxide (CO). Recent studies uncovered a new cytoprotective role for heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) by identifying a regulatory role on the complement control protein decay-accelerating factor. This is a key complement regulatory protein preventing dysregulation or overactivation of complement cascades that can cause kidney injury. Cell-specific targeting of HO-1 induction may, therefore, be a novel approach to attenuate complement-dependent forms of kidney disease.

Moringa oleifera ethanolic extract attenuates tilmicosin-induced renal damage in male rats via suppression of oxidative stress, inflammatory injury, and intermediate filament proteins mRNA expression

Tilmicosin (Til) is a popular macrolide antibiotic, widely used in veterinary practice. The present study was designed to address the efficacy of Moringa oleifera ethanolic extract (MOE) in protecting against Tilmicosin (Til) - induced nephrotoxicity in Sprague Dawley rats. Animals were treated once with Til (75 mg/kg bw, subcutaneously), and/or MOE for 7 days (400 or 800 mg/kg bw, by oral gavage). Til-treatment was associated with significantly increased serum levels of creatinine, urea, sodium, potassium and GGT activity, as well as decreased total protein and albumin concentrations. Renal tissue hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were elevated, while the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzymes were diminished. The levels of renal tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and the mRNA expression of intermediate filament protein encoding genes (desmin, nestin and vimentin) in the kidney were up- regulated with histopathological alterations in renal glomeruli, tubules and interstitial tissue. These toxic effects were markedly ameliorated by co-treatment of MOE with Til, in a dose dependent manner. Taken together, these results indicate that MO at 800 mg/kg protects against Til-induced renal injury, likely by its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which make it suitable to be used as a protective supplement with Til therapy.

Ochratoxin A-induced genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms lead to Alzheimer disease: its modulation with strategies

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a naturally occurring mycotoxin mostly found in food items including grains and coffee beans. It induces DNA single-strand breaks and has been considered to be carcinogenic. It is recognized as a serious threat to reproductive health both in males and females. OTA is highly nephrotoxic and carcinogenic, and its potency changes evidently between species and sexes. There is a close association between OTA, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and genotoxicity, but the underlying mechanisms are not clear. Reports regarding genotoxic effects in relation to OTA which leads to the induction of DNA adduct formation, protein synthesis inhibition, perturbation of cellular energy production, initiation of oxidative stress, induction of apoptosis, influences on mitosis, induction of cell cycle arrest, and interference with cytokine pathways. All these mechanisms are associated with nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, teratotoxicity, immunological toxicity, and neurotoxicity. OTA administration activates various mechanisms such as p38 MAPK, JNKs, and ERKs dysfunctions, BDNF disruption, TH overexpression, caspase-3 and 9 activation, and ERK-1/2 phosphorylation which ultimately lead to Alzheimer disease (AD) progression. The current review will focus on OTA in terms of recent discoveries in the field of molecular biology. The main aim is to investigate the underlying mechanisms of OTA in regard to genotoxicity and epigenetic modulations that lead to AD. Also, we will highlight the strategies for the purpose of attenuating the hazards posed by OTA exposure.

Heme oxygenase 1 plays a crucial role in swamp eel response to oxidative stress induced by cadmium exposure or Aeromonas hydrophila infection

Oxidative stress contributes a lot to initiation and progression of pathological conditions. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO1), a cytoprotective enzyme, is usually upregulated to alleviate oxidative stress in vivo. The function of teleost HO1 in the response to oxidative stress induced by heavy metal exposure and in pathogenic bacterial infection remains uncertain. In the present study, both complementary DNA and genomic sequence of a HO1-like gene cloned from the liver of swamp eel (Monopterus albus) are reported. Sequence analysis showed that the putative amino acid sequence contained a conserved heme oxygenase signature and displayed higher similarity to HO1 genes of other teleosts. Expression profile of swamp eel HO1 was investigated in healthy tissues and in tissues following stimulation with pathogenic bacteria (Aeromonas hydrophila) or cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) exposure. Results demonstrated that HO1 messenger RNA (mRNA) was highly expressed in the liver and relatively less in other tissues. Bacterial infection with A. hydrophila significantly changed HO1 mRNA expression in the liver, spleen, and kidney, and the mRNA expression of HO1 and Nrf2 in the liver was elevated after the fish were exposed to CdCl₂. Subsequently, the swamp eel HO1 was subcloned into a pET28a expression vector and transformed into Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Recombinant HO1 (rHO1) was successfully induced by 0.1 mmol/l IPTG and purified by Ni-NTA His Bind Resin purification system. To determine whether the rHO1 could confer stress tolerance in vitro, the viability of control and HO1-expressing E. coli under CdCl₂ stress was compared by spot assay. The rHO1 protein significantly increased survival rates of the bacterial hosts. To evaluate whether intraperitoneal injection with rHO1 protected the liver of swamp eel against A. hydrophila-induced oxidative stress, mRNA expression of HO1, Nrf2, hepcidin, and IL-1β as well as the oxidative stress-related parameters (ROS and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC)) in the liver were examined. The results showed that exogenous rHO1 could significantly upgrade the mRNA expression of HO1 and hepcidin, coupled with increased ROS and T-AOC levels. However, Nrf2 and IL-1β expression levels were significantly downregulated and upregulated, respectively. These results suggested that HO1 should not only play a protective role in oxidative stress response and its adverse effects deserved further investigation.

Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update their 2006 opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA) in food. OTA is produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Penicillium and found as a contaminant in various foods. OTA causes kidney toxicity in different animal species and kidney tumours in rodents. OTA is genotoxic both in vitro and in vivo; however, the mechanisms of genotoxicity are unclear. Direct and indirect genotoxic and non-genotoxic modes of action might each contribute to tumour formation. Since recent studies have raised uncertainty regarding the mode of action for kidney carcinogenicity, it is inappropriate to establish a health-based guidance value (HBGV) and a margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied. For the characterisation of non-neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 4.73 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day was calculated from kidney lesions observed in pigs. For characterisation of neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 14.5 μg/kg bw per day was calculated from kidney tumours seen in rats. The estimation of chronic dietary exposure resulted in mean and 95th percentile levels ranging from 0.6 to 17.8 and from 2.4 to 51.7 ng/kg bw per day, respectively. Median OTA exposures in breastfed infants ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 ng/kg bw per day, 95th percentile exposures from 5.6 to 8.5 ng/kg bw per day in average/high breast milk consuming infants, respectively. Comparison of exposures with the BMDL 10 based on the non-neoplastic endpoint resulted in MOEs of more than 200 in most consumer groups, indicating a low health concern with the exception of MOEs for high consumers in the younger age groups, indicating a possible health concern. When compared with the BMDL 10 based on the neoplastic endpoint, MOEs were lower than 10,000 for almost all exposure scenarios, including breastfed infants. This would indicate a possible health concern if genotoxicity is direct. Uncertainty in this assessment is high and risk may be overestimated.

Labile Heme Aggravates Renal Inflammation and Complement Activation After Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

Background: Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) plays a major role in solid organ transplantation. The length of warm ischemia time is critical for the extent of tissue damage in renal IRI. In this experimental study we hypothesized that local release of labile heme in renal tissue is triggered by the duration of warm ischemia (15 vs. 45 min IRI) and mediates complement activation, cytokine release, and inflammation. Methods: To induce IRI, renal pedicle clamping was performed in male C57BL/6 mice for short (15 min) or prolonged (45 min) time periods. Two and 24 h after experimental ischemia tissue injury labile heme levels in the kidney were determined with an apo-horseradish peroxidase assay. Moreover, renal injury, cytokines, and C5a and C3a receptor (C5aR, C3aR) expression were determined by histology, immunohistochemistry and qPCR, respectively. In addition, in vitro studies stimulating bone marrow-derived macrophages with LPS and the combination of LPS and heme were performed and cytokine expression was measured. Results: Inflammation and local tissue injury correlated with the duration of warm ischemia time. Labile heme concentrations in renal tissue were significantly higher after prolonged (45 min) as compared to short (15 min) IRI. Notably, expression of the inducible heme-degrading enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was up-regulated in kidneys after prolonged, but not after short IRI. C5aR, the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α as well as pERK were up-regulated after prolonged, but not after short ischemia times. Consecutively, neutrophil infiltration and up-regulation of pro-fibrotic cytokines such as CTGF and PAI were more pronounced in prolonged IRI in comparison to short IRI. In vitro stimulation of macrophages with LPS revealed that IL-6 expression was enhanced in the presence of heme. Finally, administration of the heme scavenger human serum albumin (HSA) reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, C3a receptor and improved tubular function indicated by enhanced alpha 1 microglobulin (A1M) absorption after IRI. Conclusions: Our data show that prolonged duration of warm ischemia time increased labile heme levels in the kidney, which correlates with IRI-dependent inflammation and up-regulation of anaphylatoxin receptor expression.

Epithelial-fibroblast cross talk aggravates the impact of the nephrotoxin ochratoxin A

BACKGROUND

Chronic nephropathies result from different pathogenic agents, including nutritional factors triggering vicious pathophysiological cycles. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a globally occurring nephrotoxic mycotoxin detectable in a variety of foodstuff and suspected to cause tubulointerstitial damage. The underlying mechanisms are not sufficiently understood, compromising risk assessment. Because crosstalk of proximal tubule cells with fibroblasts is crucial for tubulointerstitial damage, we investigated the effects of OTA in co-culture of these two cell types.

METHODS

Rat renal proximal tubule cells (NRK-52E) and renal fibroblasts (NRK-49F) were exposed to nanomolar OTA concentrations under mono- and/or co-culture conditions for up to 48 h. We determined the impact on inflammation-, EMT- and fibrosis-associated proteins as well as microRNAs by western blot or qPCR, respectively. Alterations in cell morphology were quantitatively assessed. The roles of miRs, COX-2 and ERK1/2 in OTA-induced effects were investigated by specific inhibition.

FINDINGS

Only under co-culture condition, OTA caused an increase of vimentin, fibronectin and miR-21 and a decrease of collagen III, E-cadherin, COX-2 and WISP1 mRNA abundance in NRK-52E cells. In NRK-49F cells, OTA induced an increase of N-cadherin, COX-2, WISP1 in co-culture only. The OTA-induced increase of fibronectin in NRK-52E cells was prevented by simultaneous inhibition of miR-21 and -200a, COX-2 or ERK1/2. The OTA-induced increase of COX-2 in NRK-49F cells was prevented by inhibition of miR-21 and -200a or ERK1/2.

INTERPRETATION

Our results show that the complete nephropathic potential of nanomolar OTA, leading to EMT, is unveiled when cellular crosstalk is possible. In monoculture, the nephropathic potential is underestimated.

RESEARCH IN CONTEXT

Chronic nephropathies are a severe health burden and the result of different pathogenic mechanisms, including nutritional factors that trigger vicious pathophysiological cycles. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a ubiquitous, globally occurring nephrotoxic mycotoxin detectable in a variety of foodstuff and suspected to cause tubulointerstitial damage. Because underlying pathomechanisms are unclear, risk assessment is problematic. Crosstalk of proximal tubule cells (the main target of OTA) with fibroblasts is crucial for the development of tubulointerstitial damage. We show that during co-culture of proximal tubule cells and fibroblasts, OTA-induced effects (e.g. epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)) change significantly as compared to monoculture. Our results show that the complete nephropathic potential of OTA is unveiled when cellular crosstalk is possible. In monoculture, the nephropathic potential of OTA is underestimated.

Heme Oxygenase-1 Influences Satellite Cells and Progression of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy in Mice

AIMS

Muscle damage in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) caused by the lack of dystrophin is strongly linked to inflammation. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1; Hmox1) is an anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective enzyme affecting myoblast differentiation by inhibiting myomiRs. The role of HO-1 has not been so far well addressed in DMD.

RESULTS

In dystrophin-deficient mdx mice, expression of Hmox1 in limb skeletal muscles and diaphragm is higher than in wild-type animals, being consistently elevated from 8 up to 52 weeks, both in myofibers and inflammatory leukocytes. Accordingly, HO-1 expression is induced in muscles of DMD patients. Pharmacological inhibition of HO-1 activity or genetic ablation of Hmox1 aggravates muscle damage and inflammation in mdx mice. Double knockout animals (Hmox1^-/-mdx) demonstrate impaired exercise capacity in comparison with mdx mice. Interestingly, in contrast to the effect observed in muscle fibers, in dystrophin-deficient muscle satellite cells (SCs) expression of Hmox1 is decreased, while MyoD, myogenin, and miR-206 are upregulated compared with wild-type counterparts. Mdx SCs demonstrate disturbed and enhanced differentiation, which is further intensified by Hmox1 deficiency. RNA sequencing revealed downregulation of Atf3, MafK, Foxo1, and Klf2 transcription factors, known to activate Hmox1 expression, as well as attenuation of nitric oxide-mediated cGMP-dependent signaling in mdx SCs. Accordingly, treatment with NO-donor induces Hmox1 expression and inhibits differentiation. Finally, differentiation of mdx SCs was normalized by CO, a product of HO-1 activity. Innovation and Conclusions: HO-1 is induced in DMD, and HO-1 inhibition aggravates DMD pathology. Therefore, HO-1 can be considered a therapeutic target to alleviate this disease. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 00, 000-000.

T-2 toxin-induced toxicity in neuroblastoma-2a cells involves the generation of reactive oxygen, mitochondrial dysfunction and inhibition of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

The molecular mechanisms of T-2 mycotoxin induced neurotoxicity remains enigmatic. In the present study we show that T-2 toxin induced neurotoxicity in mouse neuroblastoma2a (N2a) cells is both dose- and time-dependent and is associated with oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. T-2 toxin treatment of N2a cells at 10, 20, 40 and 80 ng/mL for 24 h significantly up-regulated the mRNA expression of p53, Bax, and caspase-8 and down-regulated the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 mRNA and protein expression. Activation of caspases-8, -9 and -3 was also evident in a concentration-dependent manner. Pre-treatment of the cells with the antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine markedly suppressed T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity and caspase activation. Conversely, pre-treatment of the cells with the Nrf2 inhibitor brusatol or the HO-1 inhibitor zinc protoporphyrin IX, enhanced T-2 toxin induced neurotoxicity and increased the activation of caspase-9 and -3. Taken together, these novel findings suggest that T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity in N2a cells involves oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis via the inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 and activation of p53 pathway. The present study highlights the potential of developing much needed pharmacological interventions to prevent T-2 toxin neurotoxicity.

Lack of Heme Oxygenase-1 Induces Inflammatory Reaction and Proliferation of Muscle Satellite Cells after Cardiotoxin-Induced Skeletal Muscle Injury

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1, Hmox1) regulates viability, proliferation, and differentiation of many cell types; hence, it may affect regeneration of injured skeletal muscle. Here, we injected cardiotoxin into gastrocnemius muscle of Hmox1^+/+ and Hmox1^-/- animals and analyzed cellular response after muscle injury, focusing on muscle satellite cells (SCs), inflammatory reaction, fibrosis, and formation of new blood vessels. HO-1 is strongly induced after muscle injury, being expressed mostly in the infiltrating leukocytes (CD45⁺ cells), including macrophages (F4/80⁺ cells). Lack of HO-1 augments skeletal muscle injury, evidenced by increased creatinine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, as well as expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-6, IL-1β, and insulin-like growth factor-1. This, together with disturbed proportion of M1/M2 macrophages, accompanied by enhanced formation of arterioles, may be responsible for shift of Hmox1^-/- myofiber size distribution toward larger one. Importantly, HO-1-deficient SCs are prone to activation and have higher proliferation on injury. This effect can be partially mimicked by stimulation of Hmox1^+/+ SCs with monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-6, IL-1β, and is associated with increased MyoD expression, suggesting that Hmox1^-/- SCs are shifted toward more differentiated myogenic population. However, multiple rounds of degeneration/regeneration in conditions of HO-1 deficiency may lead to exhaustion of SC pool, and the number of SCs is decreased in old Hmox1^-/- mice. In summary, HO-1 modulates muscle repair mechanisms preventing its uncontrolled acceleration.