The characteristics and performance of a multifunctional nanoassembly system for the co-delivery of docetaxel and iSur-pDNA in a mouse hepatocellular carcinoma model

Insights into the history and trends of nanotechnology for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a bibliometric-based visual analysis

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology has great potential and advantages in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but the research trends and future directions are not yet clear.

OBJECTIVES

Analyze the development trajectory, research hotspots, and future trends of nanotechnology and HCC research globally in the past 20 years, providing a more comprehensive and intuitive reference for researchers in this field.

METHODS

Retrieve relevant literature on nanotechnology and HCC research in the Web of Science (WOS) Core Collection database, and conduct bibliometric analysis using software such as CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and SCImago Graphica.

RESULTS

A total of 852 English publications meeting the criteria were retrieved from the WOS database, with an overall increasing trend in the number of publications and citation frequency over the years. China leads in the number of publications and international collaborations, followed by the USA and India. The most influential research institution is the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the most influential scholar/team is the Rahman, Mahfoozur team, and the journal with the most publications is the International Journal of Nanomedicine. A comprehensive analysis reveals that the current main research directions include new types of nanoparticles, targeted drug delivery systems, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, gene delivery systems, diagnostics, and imaging. It is anticipated that further collaboration among scholars, institutions, and countries will accelerate the development of nanotechnology in the field of HCC research.

CONCLUSION

This study provides an in-depth analysis of the research status and development trends of nanotechnology in treating HCC from a bibliometric perspective, offering possible guidance for researchers to explore hot topics and frontiers, select suitable journals, and partners in this field.

Nano-therapeutics: The upcoming nanomedicine to treat cancer

Nanotechnology is considered a successful approach for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Preferentially, cancer cell recognition and drug targeting via nano-delivery system include the penetration of anticancer agents into the cell membrane to damage the cancer cell by protein modification, DNA oxidation, or mitochondrial dysfunction. The past research on nano-delivery systems and their target has proven the beneficial achievement in a malignant tumor. Modern perceptions using inventive nanomaterials for cancer management have been offered by a multifunctional platform based on various nano-carriers with the probability of imaging and cancer therapy simultaneously. Emerging nano-delivery systems in cancer therapy still lack knowledge of the biological functions behind the interaction between nanoparticles and cancer cells. Since the potential of engineered nanoparticles addresses the various challenges, limiting the success of cancer therapy subsequently, it is a must to review the molecular targeting of a nano-delivery system to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cancer. This review focuses on using a nano-delivery system, an imaging system, and encapsulated nanoparticles for cancer therapy.

Targeting metabolic reprogramming in hepatocellular carcinoma to overcome therapeutic resistance: A comprehensive review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a heavy burden on human health with high morbidity and mortality rates. Systematic therapy is crucial for advanced and mid-term HCC, but faces a significant challenge from therapeutic resistance, weakening drug effectiveness. Metabolic reprogramming has gained attention as a key contributor to therapeutic resistance. Cells change their metabolism to meet energy demands, adapt to growth needs, or resist environmental pressures. Understanding key enzyme expression patterns and metabolic pathway interactions is vital to comprehend HCC occurrence, development, and treatment resistance. Exploring metabolic enzyme reprogramming and pathways is essential to identify breakthrough points for HCC treatment. Targeting metabolic enzymes with inhibitors is key to addressing these points. Inhibitors, combined with systemic therapeutic drugs, can alleviate resistance, prolong overall survival for advanced HCC, and offer mid-term HCC patients a chance for radical resection. Advances in metabolic research methods, from genomics to metabolomics and cells to organoids, help build the HCC metabolic reprogramming network. Recent progress in biomaterials and nanotechnology impacts drug targeting and effectiveness, providing new solutions for systemic therapeutic drug resistance. This review focuses on metabolic enzyme changes, pathway interactions, enzyme inhibitors, research methods, and drug delivery targeting metabolic reprogramming, offering valuable references for metabolic approaches to HCC treatment.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and STAT3 siRNA by a multifunctional nanocomplex for targeted treatment of metastatic breast cancer

Metastasis is one of the major causes of mortality in patients suffering from breast cancer. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is closely related to cancer metastasis. Herein, a multifunctional nanocomplex was developed to simultaneously deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and STAT3 siRNA (siSTAT3) to inhibit tumor growth and prevent metastasis of breast cancer cells. PTX was encapsulated into the synthesized polyethyleneimine-polylactic acid-lipoic acid (PPL) micelle through hydrophobic interaction, while siSTAT3 was condensed onto polyethyleneimine through electrostatic interaction. The surface charge of the drug-loaded nanocomplex (^siSTAT3PPL_PTX) was then converted to negative by coating with hyaluronic acid (HA). The multifunctional nanocomplex (HA/^siSTAT3PPL_PTX) effectively entered CD44-overexpressed 4T1 cells via an active targeting mechanism. HA shell was degraded by the concentrated hyaluronidase in the endo/lysosome and the rapid drug release was triggered by the redox micro-environment of cytoplasm. Moreover, HA/^siSTAT3PPL_PTX showed enhanced cytotoxicity against tumor cells due to a synergistic effect of PTX and siSTAT3. The effective inhibition of tumor metastasis was confirmed by in vitro cell migration and invasion in 4T1 cells. More importantly, a superior antitumor efficacy was observed in orthotopic 4T1 tumor-bearing mice, with no side effects in major organs, and the lung metastasis was strongly inhibited in 4T1 metastasis model. In conclusion, the multifunctional nanocomplex provides a versatile platform for efficient treatment of metastatic cancer through tumor-targeted chemo-gene combined therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Metastasis is one of the major causes of mortality in patients suffering from breast cancer. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is closely related to cancer metastasis. In this study, a multifunctional nanocomplex co-loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) and STAT3 siRNA was constructed and characterized. The co-delivery system exhibited active tumor targeting, effective endo/lysosomal escape, and rapid intracellular drug release. Both in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that the nanocomplex could lead to superior tumor growth inhibition, as well as metastasis suppression by silencing expression of STAT3 and p-STAT3. This present study implies that the nanocomplex could be a potential platform for targeted treatment of metastatic cancer through chemo-gene combined therapy.

Multifunctional hierarchical nanohybrids perform triple antitumor theranostics in a cascaded manner for effective tumor treatment

Gene therapy based on transfection of RNAs/DNAs offers tremendous promise for tumor treatment. However, the relatively weak therapeutic efficiency of current genetic nanohybrids in vivo has limited the application of this strategy. Herein, we fabricated multifunctional core-shell-corona nanohybrids by combining cascaded theranostics for enhanced gene therapy. The nanohybrids consist of polydopamine-modified Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles as core, anti-miRNA-21 oligonucleotides (anti-miRNA) strands as shell, and doxorubicin (DOX)-conjugated DNA-8pb (DOX-DNA-8bp) as corona. The polydopamine/Fe₃O₄ core not only serves as an active agent for local photothermal therapy under NIR irradiation, but it also provides magnetic targeting to tumor tissue for accurate treatment, which could enhance the therapeutic effect and reduce the undesired side effects to healthy tissues. The DOX-DNA-8bp corona was grafted on the anti-miRNA shell through base pairing, which could be replaced by overexpressed miRNA-21 in tumor cells due to the strong interaction between miRNA-21 and anti-miRNA, resulting in tumor-specific gene therapy through tumorigenic miRNA-21 consumption and tumor selective chemotherapy through miRNA-21-triggered DOX-DNA-8bp release in tumor cells. Moreover, the intelligent controlled release system can gradually stop the release of DOX to prevent side effects caused by drug overdose, once sufficient damage of tumor cells has occurred, due to the downregulation of miRNA-21. The results of both in vitro and in vivo analyses showed that the nanohybrids combining cascaded chemo-photo-gene therapy could effectively inhibit tumor growth, promote the survival of tumor-bearing mice, and show no visible adverse effects on these mice, resulting in a promising nanoplatform for tumor treatment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Gene therapy based on transfection of RNAs/DNAs offers tremendous promise for cancer treatment. However, the relatively weak therapeutic efficiency of current genetic nanovectors in vivo that results in insufficient tumor targeting and easy decomposition/elimination of RNAs/DNAs during therapy has limited its application. Although some approaches have combined photothermal agents or antitumor drugs with RNA/DNA nanocarriers to achieve better treatment, the spatiotemporal differences in photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, and gene therapy using current nanohybrids may hinder their synergistic effect. In the present study, we fabricated multifunctional core-shell-corona nanohybrids (Fe₃O₄@PDA@anti-miRNA/DNA) to simultaneously perform on-demand photothermal therapy, miR-21-triggered chemotherapy, and miR-21-dependent gene therapy at the same location, which can achieve an efficient synergistic effect for precise and effective tumor treatment.

Bio-Nanocarriers for Lung Cancer Management: Befriending the Barriers

Lung cancer is a complex thoracic malignancy developing consequential to aberrations in a myriad of molecular and biomolecular signaling pathways. It is one of the most lethal forms of cancers accounting to almost 1.8 million new annual incidences, bearing overall mortality to incidence ratio of 0.87. The dismal prognostic scenario at advanced stages of the disease and metastatic/resistant tumor cell populations stresses the requisite of advanced translational interdisciplinary interventions such as bionanotechnology. This review article deliberates insights and apprehensions on the recent prologue of nanobioengineering and bionanotechnology as an approach for the clinical management of lung cancer. The role of nanobioengineered (bio-nano) tools like bio-nanocarriers and nanobiodevices in secondary prophylaxis, diagnosis, therapeutics, and theranostics for lung cancer management has been discussed. Bioengineered, bioinspired, and biomimetic bio-nanotools of considerate translational value have been reviewed. Perspectives on existent oncostrategies, their critical comparison with bio-nanocarriers, and issues hampering their clinical bench side to bed transformation have also been summarized.

Potential and Applications of Nanocarriers for Efficient Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals

During the past two decades, the clinical use of biopharmaceutical products has markedly increased because of their obvious advantages over conventional small-molecule drug products. These advantages include better specificity, potency, targeting abilities, and reduced side effects. Despite the substantial clinical and commercial success, the macromolecular structure and intrinsic instability of biopharmaceuticals make their formulation and administration challenging and render parenteral delivery as the only viable option in most cases. The use of nanocarriers for efficient delivery of biopharmaceuticals is essential due to their practical benefits such as protecting from degradation in a hostile physiological environment, enhancing plasma half-life and retention time, facilitating absorption through the epithelium, providing site-specific delivery, and improving access to intracellular targets. In the current review, we highlight the clinical and commercial success of biopharmaceuticals and the overall applications and potential of nanocarriers in biopharmaceuticals delivery. Effective applications of nanocarriers for biopharmaceuticals delivery via invasive and noninvasive routes (oral, pulmonary, nasal, and skin) are presented here. The presented data undoubtedly demonstrate the great potential of combining nanocarriers with biopharmaceuticals to improve healthcare products in the future clinical landscape. In conclusion, nanocarriers are promising delivery tool for the hormones, cytokines, nucleic acids, vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, and gene- and cell-based therapeutics for the treatment of multiple pathological conditions.

Lipid/Hyaluronic Acid-Coated Doxorubicin-Fe3O4 as a Dual-Targeting Nanoparticle for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Development of a delivery system to lower systemic toxicity and enhance doxorubicin (DOX) antitumor efficacy against multi-drug resistant (MDR) tumors is of great clinical significance. Here, lipid/hyaluronic acid (HA)-coated DOX-Fe₃O₄ was characterized to determine its optimal safety and efficacy on a tumor. DOX was first conjugated onto the Fe₃O₄ NPs surface, which was subsequently coated with phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipids, which consisted of a tumor cell-targeting HA ligand, to generate a dual-targeting nanoparticle (NP). DOX-Fe₃O₄ synthesis was validated by the Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis results. Core-shell PC/HA@DOX-Fe₃O₄ formation, which had an average particle size of 48.2 nm, was observed based on the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic laser light scattering (DLS) results. The saturation magnetization value of PC/HA@DOX-Fe₃O₄ was discovered to be 28 emu/g using vibrating-sample magnetometry. Furthermore, the designed PC/HA@DOX-Fe₃O₄ achieved greater MCF-7/ADR cellular uptake and cytotoxicity as compared with DOX. In addition, PC/HA@DOX-Fe₃O₄ exhibited significant DOX tumor-targeting capabilities and enhanced tumor growth inhibition activity in the xenograft MCF-7/ADR tumor-bearing nude mice following magnetic attraction and ligand-mediated targeting, with less cardiotoxicity. Therefore, PC/HA@DOX-Fe₃O₄ is a potential candidate for MDR tumor chemotherapy. Graphical abstract.

Plasma polymerized nanoparticles effectively deliver dual siRNA and drug therapy in vivo

Multifunctional nanocarriers (MNCs) promise to improve therapeutic outcomes by combining multiple classes of molecules into a single nanostructure, enhancing active targeting of therapeutic agents and facilitating new combination therapies. However, nanocarrier platforms currently approved for clinical use can still only carry a single therapeutic agent. The complexity and escalating costs associated with the synthesis of more complex MNCs have been major technological roadblocks in the pathway for clinical translation. Here, we show that plasma polymerized nanoparticles (PPNs), synthesised in reactive gas discharges, can bind and effectively deliver multiple therapeutic cargo in a facile and cost-effective process compatible with up scaled commercial production. Delivery of siRNA against vascular endothelial growth factor (siVEGF) at extremely low concentrations (0.04 nM), significantly reduced VEGF expression in hard-to-transfect cells when compared with commercial platforms carrying higher siRNA doses (6.25 nM). PPNs carrying a combination of siVEGF and standard of care Paclitaxel (PPN-Dual) at reduced doses (< 100 µg/kg) synergistically modulated the microenvironment of orthotopic breast tumors in mice, and significantly reduced tumor growth. We propose PPNs as a new nanomaterial for delivery of therapeutics, which can be easily functionalised in any laboratory setting without the need for additional wet-chemistry and purification steps.

Recent advances of nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy

This review highlights recent advancements in nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy.

Cancer nanotechnology: Enhancing tumor cell response to chemotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the deadliest cancers due to its complexities, reoccurrence after surgical resection, metastasis and heterogeneity. In addition to sorafenib and lenvatinib for the treatment of HCC approved by FDA, various strategies including transarterial chemoembolization, radiotherapy, locoregional therapy and chemotherapy have been investigated in clinics. Recently, cancer nanotechnology has got great attention for the treatment of various cancers including HCC. Both passive and active targetings are progressing at a steady rate. Herein, we describe the lessons learned from pathogenesis of HCC and the understanding of targeted and non-targeted nanoparticles used for the delivery of small molecules, monoclonal antibodies, miRNAs and peptides. Exploring current efficacy is to enhance tumor cell response of chemotherapy. It highlights the opportunities and challenges faced by nanotechnologies in contemporary hepatocellular carcinoma therapy, where personalized medicine is increasingly becoming the mainstay. Overall objective of this review is to enhance our understanding in the design and development of nanotechnology for treatment of HCC.

Therapeutic potential of functionalized siRNA nanoparticles on regression of liver cancer in experimental mice

Short interfering RNA (siRNA) possesses special ability of silencing specific gene. To increase siRNA stability, transportation and its uptake by tumor cells, effective delivery to the appropriate target cells is a major challenge of siRNA-based therapy. In the present study, an effective, safe and biocompatible survivin siRNA encapsulated, GalNAc decorated PEGylated PLGA nanoconjugates (NCs) viz., GalNAc@PEG@siRNA-PLGA were engineered and their synergistic antitumor efficacy was evaluated for targeted delivery in HCC bearing experimental mice. GalNAc@PEG@siRNA-PLGA NCs were characterized for size, bioavailability, toxicity and biocompatibility. Their antitumor potential was evaluated considering gene silencing, apoptosis, histopathology and survival of treated mice. Exceptional accumulation of hepatocytes, reduction in survivin expression and prominent regression in tumor size confirmed the ASGPR-mediated uptake of ligand-anchored NCs and silencing of survivin gene in a targeted manner. Increased DNA fragmentation and potential modulation of caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2 factors specified the induction of apoptosis that helped in significant inhibition of HCC progression. The potential synchronous and tumor selective delivery of versatile NCs indicated the effective payloads towards the target site, increased apoptosis in cancer cells and improved survival of treated animals.

Nanomedicine as a putative approach for active targeting of hepatocellular carcinoma

The effectiveness of chemotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is restricted by chemo-resistance and systemic side effects. To improve the efficacy and safety of chemotherapeutics in HCC management, scientists have attempted to deliver these drugs to malignant tissues using targeted carriers as nanoparticles (NPs). Among the three types of NPs targeting (active, passive, and stimuli-responsive), active targeting is the most commonly investigated in HCC treatment. Despite the observed promising results so far, clinical research on nanomedicine targeting for HCC treatment still faces many challenges.These include batch-to-batch physicochemical properties' variations, limiting large scale production and insufficient data on human and environmental toxicities. This review summarized the characteristics of different nanocarriers, ligands, targeted receptors on HCC cells and provided recommendations to overcome the challenges, facing this novel line of treatment for HCC.

Folate-Targeted pH and Redox Dual Stimulation-Responsive Nanocarrier for Codelivering of Docetaxel and TFPI-2 for Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Therapy

Due to the increasing incidence of tumor metastasis and multidrug resistance, even though a combined use of chemotherapy and radiotherapy is introduced, the 5-year average survival rate of an advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) patient still remains low. Hence, targeted slow-release anticancer drugs represent a potential therapy for advanced NPC. In this study, pH and redox dual stimulation-responsive folate-targeted folic acid - β-cyclodextrin - hyperbranched poly(amido amine)s (FA-DS-PAAs) nanocarriers for codelivery of docetaxel (DOC) and tissue factor pathway inhibitor 2 (TFPI-2) for NPC therapy are discussed. Physical and chemical properties, in vitro DOC-release properties, folic acid (FA)-targeting, transfection, Western blotting, DOC and TFPI-2 codelivery, therapeutic properties, targeted inhibition, and biocompatibility, in vivo FA-targeting, toxicity, and therapeutic properties of FA-DS-PAAs/DOC/TFPI2 nanoparticles are evaluated. The results indicate that the 200 nm low-toxicity FA-DS-PAAs/DOC/TFPI2 nanoparticles could enhance TFPI2 gene expression, make cancer cells more sensitive to DOC, induce cell apoptosis, and reduce cell invasion more effectively compared with monochemotherapy. With respect to the targeted release of drugs (DOC and TFPI2) in tumor cells, FA-DS-PAAs/DOC/TFPI2 is associated with the slowest growth rate of tumor and the smallest volume of tumor, so this study demonstrates the best synergetic antitumor effect. We anticipate that this study is important because it not only provides a potential new therapy approach for NPC but also paves the preclinical way for potential application of FA-DS-PAAs/DOC/TFPI2.

Nasopharyngeal cancer combination chemoradiation therapy based on folic acid modified, gefitinib and yttrium 90 co-loaded, core-shell structured lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles

Current treatment of advanced-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is not satisfactory. Here, we developed a folic acid (FA) modified, gefitinib (GEF) and yttrium 90 (Y90) co-loaded, core-shell structured lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP). The size and zeta potential, drug release behavior, and uptake by tumor cells were investigated. The antitumor efficiency and toxicity of LPNP were evaluated in cancer cells and in tumor bearing mice. FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP with a mean size of 150 nm and zeta potential of -40 mV was able to enhance the accumulation in the NPC cells and exhibited the highest cytotoxicity. The AUC and T_1/2 of FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP group was 217.62 ± 10.32 mg/L.h and 12.09 ± 0.43 h, respectively. FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP exhibited the best in vivo tumor inhibition ability, leading to a 221.2 ± 13.5 mm³ of tumor volume at day 21. FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP treatment resulted in almost no difference in the body weight. This may be the evidence that the systemic toxicity of FA-GEF-Y90-LPNP is low and may be used as safety system for the treatment of NPC.

Threatening cancer with nanoparticle aided combination oncotherapy

Employing combination therapy has become obligatory in cancer cases exhibiting high tumor load, chemoresistant tumor population, and advanced disease stages. Realization of this fact has now led many of the combination oncotherapies to become an integral part of anticancer regimens. Combination oncotherapy may encompass a combination of anticancer agents belonging to a similar therapeutic category or that of different therapeutic categories (e.g. chemotherapy + gene therapy). Differences in the physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution pattern of different payloads are the major constraints that are faced by combination chemotherapy. Concordant efforts in the field of nanotechnology and oncology have emerged with several approaches to solve the major issues encountered by combination therapy. Unique colloidal behaviors of various types of nanoparticles and differential targeting strategies have accorded an unprecedented ability to optimize combination oncotherapeutic delivery. Nanocarrier based delivery of the various types of payloads such as chemotherapeutic agents and other anticancer therapeutics such as small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA), chemosensitizers, radiosensitizers, and antiangiogenic agents have been addressed in the present review. Various nano-delivery systems like liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, polymerosomes, dendrimers, micelles, lipid based nanoparticles, prodrug based nanocarriers, polymer-drug conjugates, polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, nanosponges, supramolecular nanocarriers and inorganic nanoparticles (gold nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles and mesoporous silica based nanoparticles) that have been extensively explored for the formulation of multidrug delivery is an imperative part of discussion in the review. The present review features the outweighing benefits of combination therapy over mono-oncotherapy and discusses several existent nanoformulation strategies that facilitate a successful combination oncotherapy. Several obstacles that may impede in transforming nanotechnology-based combination oncotherapy from bench to bedside, and challenges associated therein have also been discussed in the present review.

Co-Delivery Nanosystems for Cancer Treatment: A Review

Massive data available on cancer therapy more than ever lead our mind to the general concept that there is no perfect treatment for cancer. Indeed, the biological complexity of this disease is too excessive to be treated by a single therapeutic approach. Current delivery systems containing a specific drug or gene have their particular opportunities and restrictions. It is worth noting that a considerable number of studies suggest that single- drug delivery systems result in insufficient suppression of cancer growth. Therefore, one of the main ideas of co-delivery system designing is to enhance the intended response or to achieve the synergistic/combined effect compared to the single drug strategy. This review focuses on various strategies for co-delivery of therapeutic agents in the treatment of cancer. The primary approaches within the script are categorized into co-delivery of conventional chemotherapeutics, gene-based molecules, and plant-derived materials. Each one is explained in examples with the recent researches. In the end, a brief summary is provided to conclude the gist of the review.

Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarrier for Co-delivery of MiR-31 and Doxorubicin To Suppress High MtEF4 Cancer

Gene interference-based therapeutics represent a fascinating challenge and show enormous potential for cancer treatment, in which microRNA is used to correct abnormal gene. On the basis of the above, we introduced microRNA-31 to bind to 3'-untranslated region of mtEF4, resulting in the downregulation of its messenger RNA and protein to trigger cancer cells apoptosis through mitochondria-related pathway. To achieve better therapeutic effect, a mesoporous silica nanoparticle-based controlled nanoplatform had been developed. This system was fabricated by conjugation of microRNA-31 onto doxorubicin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles with a poly(ethyleneimine)/hyaluronic acid coating, and drug release was triggered by acidic environment of tumors. By feat of surface functionalization and tumor-specific conjugation to nanoparticles, our drug delivery system could promote intracellular accumulation of drugs via the active transport at tumor site. More importantly, microRNA-31 not only directly targeted to mtEF4 to promote cell's death, but had synergistic effects when used in combination with doxorubicin, and achieved excellent superadditive effects. As such, our research might provide new insights toward detecting high mtEF4 cancer and exploiting highly effective anticancer drugs.

Dual Acting Polymeric Nano-Aggregates for Liver Cancer Therapy

Liver cancer treatments are often hindered by poor drug physicochemical properties, hence there is a need for improvement in order to increase patient survival and outlook. Combination therapies have been studied in order to evaluate whether increased overall efficacy can be achieved. This study reports the combined treatment of liver cancer cells with a combination treatment of chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel and pro-apoptotic protein cytochrome C. In order to administer both agents in a single formulation, a poly(allylamine)-based amphiphile has been fabricated with the incorporation of a hybrid iron oxide-gold nanoparticle into its structure. Here, the insoluble paclitaxel becomes incorporated into the hydrophobic core of the self-assemblies formed in an aqueous environment (256 nm), while the cytochrome C attaches irreversibly onto the hybrid nanoparticle surface via gold-thiol dative covalent binding. The self-assemblies were capable of solubilising up to 0.698 mg/mL of paclitaxel (700-fold improvement) with 0.012 mg/mL of cytochrome C also attached onto the hybrid iron oxide-gold nanoparticles (HNPs) within the hydrophobic core. The formulation was tested on a panel of liver cancer cells and cytotoxicity was measured. The findings suggested that indeed a significant improvement in combined therapy (33-fold) was observed when compared with free drug, which was double the enhancement observed after polymer encapsulation without the cytochrome C in hepatocellular carcinoma (Huh-7D12) cells. Most excitingly, the polymeric nanoparticles did result in improved cellular toxicity in human endothelian liver cancer (SK-hep1) cells, which proved completely resistant to the free drug.

Folate-targeted star-shaped cationic copolymer co-delivering docetaxel and MMP-9 siRNA for nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy

The co-delivery of drug and gene has become the primary strategy in cancer therapy. Based on our previous work, to co-deliver docetaxel (DOC) and MMP-9 siRNA more efficiently for HNE-1 nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy, a folate-modified star-shaped copolymer (FA-CD-PLLD) consisting of β-cyclodextrin (CD) and poly(L-lysine) dendron (PLLD) was synthesized, and then used for DOC and MMP-9 co-delivery. Different from commonly used amphiphilic copolymers micelles, the obtained CD derivative could be used directly for the combinatorial delivery of nucleic acid and hydrophobic DOC without a complicated micellization process. In vitro and in vivo assays are carried out to confirm the effectiveness of the target strategy and combined treatment. It was found that the conjugation of CD-PLLD with FA could enhance the DOC/MMP-9 delivery effect obviously, inducing a more significant apoptosis and decreasing invasive capacity of HEN-1 cells. In vivo assays showed that FA-CD-PLLD/DOC/MMP-9 could inhibit HNE-1 tumor growth and decrease PCNA expression effectively, indicating a promising strategy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma therapy. Moreover, the in vivo distribution of DOC and MMP-9, blood compatibility and toxicity are also explored.

The potential of multi-compound nanoparticles to bypass drug resistance in cancer

PURPOSE

The therapeutic efficacy of conventional chemotherapy against several solid tumors is generally limited and this is often due to the development of resistance or poor delivery of the drugs to the tumor. Mechanisms of resistance may vary between cancer types. However, with current development of genetic analyses, imaging, and novel delivery systems, we may be able to characterize and bypass resistance, e.g., by inhibition of the right target at the tumor site. Therefore, combined drug treatments, where one drug will revert or obstruct the development of resistance and the other will concurrently kill the cancer cell, are rational solutions. However, drug exposure of one drug will defer greatly from the other due to their physicochemical properties. In this sense, multi-compound nanoparticles are an excellent modality to equalize drug exposure, i.e., one common physicochemical profile. In this review, we will discuss novel approaches that employ nanoparticle technology that addresses specific mechanisms of resistance in cancer.

METHODS

The PubMed literature was consulted and reviewed.

RESULTS

Nanoparticle technology is emerging as a dexterous solution that may address several forms of resistance in cancer. For instance, we discuss advances that address mechanisms of resistance with multi-compound nanoparticles which co-deliver chemotherapeutics with an anti-resistance agent. Promising anti-resistance agents are (1) targeted in vivo gene silencing methods aimed to disrupt key resistance gene expression or (2) protein kinase inhibitors to disrupt key resistance pathways or (3) efflux pumps inhibitors to limit drug cellular efflux.

Survivin downregulation using siRNA nanoliposomes inhibits cell proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of MHCC-97H hepatic cancer cells: An in vitro and in vivo study

At present, survivin is one of the most cancer-specific proteins that has been identified. The present study aimed to investigate the antitumor effects of novel survivin small interfering RNA (siRNA) nanoliposomes targeting survivin in human hepatocellular carcinoma MHCC-97H cells and xenograft mouse models. Survivin-targeted siRNA nanoliposomes were prepared and transfected into MHCC-97H cells and MHCC-97H-bearing nude mice. Survivin expression was analyzed using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blotting. Cell viability was analyzed using an MTT assay and apoptosis was evaluated using Hoechst and Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide staining. Tumor growth in MHCC-97H-bearing mice was monitored following treatment and tumor samples were obtained for survivin expression analysis using RT-qPCR, western blotting and immunohistochemistry staining. Survivin expression levels were significantly downregulated by nanoliposome-mediated survivin siRNA delivery and this was associated with a significant inhibition of cell growth and an increase in the apoptosis of MHCC-97H cells. Downregulation of survivin expression using survivin siRNA nanoliposomes inhibited tumor growth in the MHCC-97H xenograft models without significant treatment-associated toxicity. Therefore, a cationic nanoliposome-based survivin siRNA delivery system was constructed and demonstrated to be efficient for survivin siRNA delivery in in vitro and in vivo studies. These results demonstrate that survivin downregulation was able to significantly attenuate cell proliferation and induce the apoptosis of MHCC-97H cells, as well as inhibit tumor cell growth in MHCC-97H xenograft models, indicating that survivin suppression using siRNA may contribute to the inhibition of tumor development by suppressing cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis.

Cancer nanomedicine: progress, challenges and opportunities

The intrinsic limits of conventional cancer therapies prompted the development and application of various nanotechnologies for more effective and safer cancer treatment, herein referred to as cancer nanomedicine. Considerable technological success has been achieved in this field, but the main obstacles to nanomedicine becoming a new paradigm in cancer therapy stem from the complexities and heterogeneity of tumour biology, an incomplete understanding of nano-bio interactions and the challenges regarding chemistry, manufacturing and controls required for clinical translation and commercialization. This Review highlights the progress, challenges and opportunities in cancer nanomedicine and discusses novel engineering approaches that capitalize on our growing understanding of tumour biology and nano-bio interactions to develop more effective nanotherapeutics for cancer patients.

Targeted Co-delivery of PTX and TR3 siRNA by PTP Peptide Modified Dendrimer for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer

A new type of tumor-targeted nanovehicle peptide-conjugated PSPG (PSPGP) is successfully synthesized for co-delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) and TR3 small interfering RNA (siRNA). In vitro and in vivo investigations demonstrate that the redox-responsive PSPGP exhibit enhanced endosomal escape and intracellular degradation, which facilitate PTX and TR3 siRNA release, effectively improving the antitumor efficacy.

Ligand-based targeted therapy: a novel strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Chemotherapy is recommended to patients with intermediate or advanced stage cancer. However, the conventional chemotherapy yields low desired response rates due to multidrug resistance, fast clearance rate, nonspecific delivery, severe side effects, low drug concentration in cancer cells, and so on. Nanoparticle-mediated targeted drug delivery system can surmount the aforementioned obstacles through enhanced permeability and retention effect and active targeting as a novel approach of therapeutics for HCC in recent years. The active targeting is triggered by ligands on the delivery system, which recognize with and internalize into hepatoma cells with high specificity and efficiency. This review focuses on the latest targeted delivery systems for HCC and summarizes the ligands that can enhance the capacity of active targeting, to provide some insight into future research in nanomedicine for HCC.

Synthesis and Characterization of Mn:ZnSe/ZnS/ZnMnS Sandwiched QDs for Multimodal Imaging and Theranostic Applications

In this work, a facile aqueous synthesis method is optimized to produce Mn:ZnSe/ZnS/ZnMnS sandwiched quantum dots (SQDs). In this core-shell co-doped system, paramagnetic Mn(2+) ions are introduced as core and shell dopants to generate Mn phosphorescence and enhance the magnetic resonance imaging signal, respectively. T1 relaxivity of the nanoparticles can be improved and manipulated by raising the shell doping level. Steady state and time-resolved optical measurements suggest that, after high level shell doping, Mn phosphorescence of the core can be sustained by the sandwiched ZnS shell. Because the SQDs are free of toxic heavy metal compositions, excellent biocompatibility of the prepared nanocrystals is verified by in vitro MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. To explore the theranostic applications of SQDs, liposome-SQD assemblies are prepared and used for ex vivo optical and magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, these engineered SQDs as nanocarrier for gene delivery in therapy of Panc-1 cancer cells are employed. The therapeutic effects of the nanocrystals formulation are confirmed by gene expression analysis and cell viability assay.

Tumor-targeted docetaxel-loaded hyaluronic acid-quercetin polymeric micelles with p-gp inhibitory property for hepatic cancer therapy

Herein, a novel targeted drug delivery nanosystem based on hyaluronic acid (HA) and quercetin (QU) was designed to improve the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of DTX on HC through HA-CD44 mediated targeting and QU-based p-gp efflux inhibition.

Nanoparticles for targeted delivery of therapeutics and small interfering RNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the 5^th most common malignancy which is responsible for more than half million annual mortalities; also, it is the third leading cause of cancer related death. Unfavorable systemic side-effects of chemotherapeutic agents and susceptibility to the degradation of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), which can knock down a specific gene involved in the disease, have hampered their clinical application. So, it could be beneficial to develop an efficient carrier for the stabilization and specific delivery of drugs and siRNA to cells. Targeted nanoparticles have gained considerable attention as an efficient drug and gene delivery system, which is due to their capability in achieving the highest accumulation of cytotoxic agents in tumor tissue, modifiable drug pharmacokinetic- and bio-distribution, improved effectiveness of treatment, and limited side-effects. Recent studies have shed more light on the advantages of novel drug loaded carrier systems vs free drugs. Most of the animal studies have reported improvement in treatment efficacy and survival rate using novel carrier systems. Targeted delivery may be achieved passively or actively. In passive targeting, no ligand as homing device is used, while targeting is achieved by incorporating the therapeutic agent into a macromolecule or nanoparticle that passively reaches the target organ. However, in active targeting, the therapeutic agent or carrier system is conjugated to a tissue or cell-specific receptor which is over-expressed in a special malignancy using a ligand called a homing device. This review covers a broad spectrum of targeted nanoparticles as therapeutic and non-viral siRNA delivery systems, which are developed for enhanced cellular uptake and targeted gene silencing in vitro and in vivo and their characteristics and opportunities for the clinical applications of drugs and therapeutic siRNA are discussed in this article. Asialoglycoprotein receptors, low-density lipoprotein, ganglioside GM1 cell surface ligand, epidermal growth factor receptor receptors, monoclonal antibodies, retinoic acid receptors, integrin receptors targeted by Arg-Gly-Asp peptide, folate, and transferrin receptors are the most widely studied cell surface receptors which are used for the site specific delivery of drugs and siRNA-based therapeutics in HCC and discussed in detail in this article.

Targeted lung cancer therapy: preparation and optimization of transferrin-decorated nanostructured lipid carriers as novel nanomedicine for co-delivery of anticancer drugs and DNA

Purpose

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) represent an improved generation of lipid nanoparticles. They have specific nanostructures to accommodate drugs/genes, and thus achieve higher loading capacity. The aim of this study was to develop transferrin (Tf)-decorated NLC as multifunctional nanomedicine for co-delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) and enhanced green fluorescence protein plasmid.

Methods

Firstly, Tf-conjugated ligands were synthesized. Secondly, PTX- and DNA-loaded NLC (PTX-DNA-NLC) was prepared. Finally, Tf-containing ligands were used for the surface decoration of NLC. Their average size, zeta potential, drug, and gene loading were evaluated. Human non-small cell lung carcinoma cell line (NCl-H460 cells) was used for the testing of in vitro transfection efficiency, and in vivo transfection efficiency of NLC was evaluated on mice bearing NCl-H460 cells.

Results

Tf-decorated PTX and DNA co-encapsulated NLC (Tf-PTX-DNA-NLC) were nano-sized particles with positive zeta potential. Tf-PTX-DNA-NLC displayed low cytotoxicity, high gene transfection efficiency, and enhanced antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

The results demonstrated that Tf-PTX-DNA-NLC can achieve impressive antitumor activity and gene transfection efficiency. Tf decoration also enhanced the active targeting ability of the carriers to NCl-H460 cells. The novel drug and gene delivery system offers a promising strategy for the treatment of lung cancer.

Noninvasive theranostic imaging of HSV-TK/GCV suicide gene therapy in liver cancer by folate-targeted quantum dot-based liposomes

We have successfully developed folate-targeting liposomes for effective and safe HSV-TK suicide gene theranostics.

Codelivery of doxorubicin and p53 by biodegradable micellar carriers based on chitosan derivatives

In this work, novel biodegradable cationic micelles were prepared based on poly-(N-ε-carbobenzyloxy-l-lysine) (PZLL) and chitosan (CS) by click reaction, and applied for co-delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) and p53 plasmid.

Active radar guides missile to its target: receptor-based targeted treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma by nanoparticulate systems

Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) usually present at advanced stages and do not benefit from surgical resection, so drug therapy should deserve a prominent place in unresectable HCC treatment. But chemotherapy agents, such as doxorubicin, cisplatin, and paclitaxel, frequently encounter important problems such as low specificity and non-selective biodistribution. Recently, the development of nanotechnology led to significant breakthroughs to overcome these problems. Decorating the surfaces of nanoparticulate-based drug carriers with homing devices has demonstrated its potential in concentrating chemotherapy agents specifically to HCC cells. In this paper, we reviewed the current status of active targeting strategies for nanoparticulate systems based on various receptors such as asialoglycoprotein receptor, transferrin receptor, epidermal growth factor receptor, folate receptor, integrin, and CD44, which are abundantly expressed on the surfaces of hepatocytes or liver cancer cells. Furthermore, we pointed out their merits and defects and provided theoretical references for further research.

Simultaneous inhibition of tumor growth and angiogenesis for resistant hepatocellular carcinoma by co-delivery of sorafenib and survivin small hairpin RNA

The development of multidrug resistance (MDR) in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the major obstacles for successful chemotherapy of HCC. Co-delivery of sorafenib (SF) and survivin shRNA (shSur) was postulated to achieve synergistic effects in reversing MDR, suppressing tumor growth and angiogenesis. For this purpose, in this work, SF and shSur co-loaded pluronic P85-polyethyleneimine/d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate nanocomplexes (SSNs) were first designed and developed for the treatment of drug resistant HCC. The experimental results showed that SSNs could achieve effective cellular internalization and shSur transfection efficiency, induce significant downregulation of the survivin protein, and cause remarkable cell arrest and cell apoptosis. The tube formulation assay demonstrated that SSNs completely disrupted the enclosed capillary networks formed by human microvascular endothelial cells. The in vivo antitumor efficacy showed that SSNs were superior to that of other treatments on drug resistant hepatocellular tumor models. Therefore, it could be an efficient strategy to co-deliver SF and shSur for therapy of drug resistant HCC.

Magnetically guided survivin-siRNA delivery and simultaneous dual-modal imaging visualization based on Fe3O4@mTiO2nanospheres for breast cancer

Fe₃O₄@mTiO₂/FMN-PEI as a siRNA delivery system can transfect survivin-siRNA to induce apoptosis, along with magnetic targeting, MRI and optical imaging.

Nanotechnology-based intelligent drug design for cancer metastasis treatment

Traditional chemotherapy used today at clinics is mainly inherited from the thinking and designs made four decades ago when the Cancer War was declared. The potency of those chemotherapy drugs on in-vitro cancer cells is clearly demonstrated at even nanomolar levels. However, due to their non-specific effects in the body on normal tissues, these drugs cause toxicity, deteriorate patient's life quality, weaken the host immunosurveillance system, and result in an irreversible damage to human's own recovery power. Owing to their unique physical and biological properties, nanotechnology-based chemotherapies seem to have an ability to specifically and safely reach tumor foci with enhanced efficacy and low toxicity. Herein, we comprehensively examine the current nanotechnology-based pharmaceutical platforms and strategies for intelligent design of new nanomedicines based on targeted drug delivery system (TDDS) for cancer metastasis treatment, analyze the pros and cons of nanomedicines versus traditional chemotherapy, and evaluate the importance that nanomaterials can bring in to significantly improve cancer metastasis treatment.

Rationally designed nanovehicles to overcome cancer chemoresistance

Drug resistance is a primary hindrance towards curative cancer chemotherapy. Nanotechnology holds great promise in establishing efficacious and innovative strategies to overcome chemoresistance, and markedly facilitate complementary treatments and cancer diagnostics. Various nanomedical devices are being introduced and evaluated, demonstrating encouraging results. While stealth liposomes serve as a benchmark, astonishing progress is witnessed in polymeric nanovehicles, sometimes combined with low molecular weight surfactants, some of which inhibit drug resistance in addition to solubilizing drugs. Cutting edge multifunctional or quadrugnostic nanoparticles currently developed offer simultaneous targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics and chemosensitizers or drug-resistance gene silencing cargo, along with diagnostic imaging agents, like metallic NPs. Viral and cellular components offer exciting new routes for cancer targeting and treatment. Targeting intracellular compartments is another challenging frontier spawning pioneering approaches and results. To further enhance rational design of nanomedicine for overcoming drug resistance, we review the latest thoughts and accomplishments in recent literature.

Supramolecular self-assembly forming a multifunctional synergistic system for targeted co-delivery of gene and drug

For developing a multifunctional bioreducible targeted and synergistic co-delivery system for anticancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) and p53 gene for potential cancer therapy, supramolecular self-assembled inclusion complex was prepared from PTX and star-shaped cationic polymer containing γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) and multiple oligoethylenimine (OEI) arms with folic acid (FA) conjugated via a disulfide linker. The inclusion complex, termed as γ-CD-OEI-SS-FA/PTX, was formed between PTX and the hydrophobic cavity of γ-CD core of the star polymer. The γ-CD-OEI-SS-FA/PTX complex further formed polyplexes with pDNA to give positively charged nanoparticles, becoming multifunctional supramolecular self-assembled co-delivery system for PTX and pDNA targeting to cancer cells that overexpress folate receptors (FRs). The results showed that the FA-targeted function induced higher gene transfection efficiency in the FR-positive KB cells. The redox-sensitive disulfide linker in the self-assembly system led to the detachment of the FA groups from the carrier after the FR-mediated endocytosis, which resulted in the release of the bound FRs followed by the recycling of the FRs from the cytosol onto the cell membrane surface, facilitating continuous FR-mediated endocytosis to achieve enhanced gene transfection. In addition, the complexed PTX was co-delivered to the cells with pDNA, which further enhanced the gene transfection even at low N/P ratios in the FR-positive KB cells. Further, the efficient delivery of wild-type p53 gene resulted in large cell population at sub G1 and G2/M phases, inducing significant cell apoptosis. Therefore, the multifunctional γ-CD-OEI-SS-FA/PTX self-assembly system with the synergistic effects of redox-sensitive FA-targeted and PTX-enhanced p53 gene delivery may be promising for cancer therapeutic application.

Nanoparticles for gene delivery

Nanocarriers are a new type of nonviral gene carriers, many of which have demonstrated a broad range of pharmacological and biological properties, such as being biodegradable in the body, stimulus-responsive towards the surrounding environment, and an ability to specifically targeting certain disease sites. By summarizing some main types of nanocarriers, this Concept considers the current status and possible future directions of the potential clinical applications of multifunctional nanocarriers, with primary attention on the combination of such properties as biodegradability, targetability, transfection ability, and stimuli sensitivity.