Positioning metal-organic framework nanoparticles within the context of drug delivery – A comparison with mesoporous silica nanoparticles and dendrimers

Metal-organic chelator frameworks for arsenic-based cancer treatment

The off-target toxicity of arsenic trioxide chemotherapy is a common Achilleś heel of metallodrugs. This limitation is usually mitigated by employing various cargo agents capable of transporting arsenic species to specific sites. More specifically, two of the most explored strategies to address arsenic trioxide's off-target toxicity include: (i) the complexation of As(III) species with chelating agents and (ii) their immobilization, either on the surface or, within non-porous and porous nanomaterials. In this work, we have explored the combination of mercaptosuccinic acid, an arsenic chelator, with zirconium oxo-clusters to assemble two new microporous Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), denoted as BCM-1 and BCM-2 (BCM referring to Basque Center for Materials, Applications & Nanostructures). The specific chemical and structural features of these news frameworks have enabled controlling the arsenic loading and release in different scenarios. Specifically, arsenic release accelerates under oxidative conditions due to the rupture of thiol-arsenic bonds, caused by the oxidation of -SH groups to -SO3 within the MOF. Additionally, in acidic conditions typical of cancer microenvironments, the framework itself disassembles, further facilitating arsenic release. The particle size and arsenic loading capacity of BCM-1 can be easily modulated by controlling the synthesis conditions. This strategy has led to the development of micrometric, nanometric and gel-like materials, whose chemical stability in acidic and biological relevant media has been duly assessed. Notably, arsenic release from nano-BCM-1 is able to reverse the growth curve of HeLa cancer cells in approximately 50 h. This discovery paves the way towards the use of metal-chelator organic molecules in assembling new MOF materials capable of controlling the cargo and release of metallodrugs under in-vivo conditions.

Porous Silica Nanoparticle Entrapped Small Gd(III) and Mn(II) Complexes as MRI Contrast Agents

Among the in vivo imaging techniques, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides soft-tissue images with high spatial resolution without using any harmful ionizing radiation. Prior to in vivo imaging, the administration of a bolus injection of paramagnetic species, coined as contrast agents (CAs), has become almost routine to facilitate conspicuous imaging in a relatively short measurement period. The contrast agents are mainly small Gd(III)-complexes of macrocyclic and acyclic organic ligands with polar pendant arms. Nonetheless, reports on some adverse effects due to the accumulation of bare Gd(III) ions in the human body from the used gadolinium-based contrast agents necessitate extensive investigations on Mn(II)-complexes to engender potential alternatives. While thermodynamically stable and kinetically inert Mn-complexes with inner-sphere water molecule(s) have been developed and tested as CAs, the enhancement in the relaxivity value beyond 3.5 mM-1 s-1 has been intriguing. This review discloses the recent strategies for incorporating paramagnetic small Gd(III) and Mn(II) complexes within the porous nanosystems, the physicochemical properties, and stability and contrast efficiency improvement after confinement. The generation of "smart" and environmentally responsive contrasting probes by incorporating appropriate functional groups onto the surface of the robust nanosystems is also presented herein.

Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of prepared thymol@UIO-66 and thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 nanoparticles against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A synergistic approach

This study introduces a novel approach to enhance the antibacterial properties of UIO-66 by incorporating both Thymol and ZnO nanoparticles within its framework which represents a significant advancement like exhibiting a synergistic antibacterial effect, providing a prolonged and controlled release, and mitigating cytotoxicity associated with the release of free ZnO nanoparticles by combining these two antimicrobial agents within a single, well-defined metal-organic framework. UIO-66 frameworks are investigated as carriers for the natural antimicrobial agent, Thymol, and ZnONPs offering a novel drug delivery system for antibacterial applications. Results demonstrated 132, 90, 184, and 223 nm sizes for UIO-66, ZnONPs, UIO-66 encapsulated Thymol, and UIO-66 encapsulated both Thymol and ZnONPs, respectively. Successful encapsulation of the antibacterial drug with a high entrapment efficiency of 64 % for Thymol was approved, and 49 % in-vitro release of Thymol was achieved for 72 hours. In-vitro antibacterial assays revealed promising results, with the drug-loaded nanoparticles exhibiting significantly lower MIC values and enhanced bactericidal activity against S. Aureus bacterial strains compared to the free drug, as demonstrated by agar disk diffusion and time-kill assays. MIC values reduced from a range of 31.25-250 µg/ml for free Thymol and 12.5-100 µg/ml for free ZnONPs to 3.9-62.5 µg/ml for Thymol@UIO-66 and 1.95-15.63 µg/ml for Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66. According to the results, the mixture of both Thymol and ZnONPs had 41 % and 16 % more antibiofilm activities in comparison with free Thymol and free ZnONPs, respectively. Furthermore, Thymol@UIO-66 had 25 % higher antibiofilm activities relative to not-encapsulated Thymol and ZnONPs, and this improvement was even 46 % more in Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 in comparison with Thymol@UIO-66. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 frameworks as a promising drug delivery platform for effective antibacterial therapy. This approach to overcome antibiotic resistance and improve treatment efficacy potentially.

State-of-the-Art, Insights, and Perspectives for MOFs-Nanocomposites and MOF-Derived (Nano)Materials

Composite structures created from metal‒organic framework (MOF) matrices are reviewed in this work. Depending on the nature of the second component apart from the MOF platform, several synergistic properties may arise; at the same time, the initial features of the single constituent materials are usually maintained, and individual shortcomings are mitigated. Currently, timely energy and environmental challenges necessitate the quest for more advanced materials and technologies. Significant developments in MOF-nanocomposites have enabled their application across a wide range of modern and traditional fields. This review demonstrates in an exhaustive and critical way a broad range of MOF-based nanocomposites, namely, MOF/perovskite nanoparticles (NPs), MOF/metal (non-iron) oxide NPs, MOF/Fe3O4 NPs, MOF/metal chalcogenide NPs, MOF/metal NPs, and MOF/carbon-based materials, as well as nanocomposites of MOFs with other semiconductor NPs. Key points related to the synthesis, characterization, and applications of these materials are provided. Depending on their configuration, the composites under discussion can be applied in domains such as photoelectrochemical sensing, antibiotic/dye degradation, optoelectronics, photovoltaics, catalysis, solar cells, supercapacitors, batteries, water remediation, and drug loading. Sometimes, MOFs can undergo certain processes (e.g. pyrolysis) and act as precursors for composite materials with appealing characteristics. Therefore, a special section in the manuscript is devoted to MOF-derived NP composites. Toward the end of the text, we conclude while also describing the challenges and possibilities for further investigations in the umbrella of material categories analyzed herein. Despite the progress achieved, key questions remain to be answered regarding the relationships among the morphology, properties, and polyvalent activity of these materials. The present work aims to shed light on most of their aspects and innovative prospects, facilitating a deeper comprehension of the underlying phenomena, functionality, and mechanistic insights governing their behavior.

Construction and evaluation of liposomal drug delivery system for an ALK/HDACs dual-targeted inhibitor with sustained release and enhanced antitumor effect

ALK/HDACs dual target inhibitor (PT-54) was a 2,4-pyrimidinediamine derivative synthesized based on the pharmacophore merged strategy that inhibits both anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) and histone deacetylases (HDACs), which has demonstrated significant efficacy in treating multiple cancers. However, its poor solubility in water limited its clinical application. In this study, we prepared PT-54 liposomes (PT-54-LPs) by the membrane hydration method to overcome this defect. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and particle size were used as evaluation indicators to explore the preparation conditions of PT-54-LPs. The morphology, particle size, EE, drug loading content (DLC), drug release properties, and stability of PT-54-LPs were further investigated. In vitro drug release studies showed that PT-54-LPs exhibited significant slow-release properties compared with free PT-54. PT-54-LPs also showed better tumor inhibitory effects than free PT-54 without significant adverse effects. These results suggested that PT-54-LPs displayed sustained drug release and significantly improved the tumor selectivity of PT-54. Thus, PT-54-LPs showed significant promise in enhancing anticancer efficiency.

Recent advances in zeolitic imidazolate frameworks as drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Biological nanotechnologies based on functional nanoplatforms have synergistically catalyzed the emergence of cancer therapies. As a subtype of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) have exploded in popularity in the field of biomaterials as excellent protective materials with the advantages of conformational flexibility, thermal and chemical stability, and functional controllability. With these superior properties, the applications of ZIF-based materials in combination with various therapies for cancer treatment have grown rapidly in recent years, showing remarkable achievements and great potential. This review elucidates the recent advancements in the use of ZIFs as drug delivery agents for cancer therapy. The structures, synthesis methods, properties, and various modifiers of ZIFs used in oncotherapy are presented. Recent advances in the application of ZIF-based nanoparticles as single or combination tumor treatments are reviewed. Furthermore, the future prospects, potential limitations, and challenges of the application of ZIF-based nanomaterials in cancer treatment are discussed. We except to fully explore the potential of ZIF-based materials to present a clear outline for their application as an effective cancer treatment to help them achieve early clinical application.

Current status and future developments of biopolymer microspheres in the field of pharmaceutical preparation

Polymer composite microspheres offer several advantages including highly designable structural properties, adjustable micro-nano particle size distribution, easy surface modification, large specific surface area, and high stability. These features make them valuable in various fields such as medicine, sensing, optics, and display technologies, with significant applications in clinical diagnostics, pathological imaging, and drug delivery in the medical field. Currently, microspheres are primarily used in biomedical research as long-acting controlled-release agents and targeted delivery systems, and are widely applied in bone tissue repair, cancer treatment, and wound healing. Different types of polymer microspheres offer distinct advantages and application prospects. Efforts are ongoing to transition successful experimental research to industrial production by expanding various fabrication technologies. This article provides an overview of materials used in microsphere manufacturing, different fabrication methods, modification techniques to enhance their properties and applications, and discusses the role of microspheres in drug delivery engineering.

Physicochemical and biological properties of dental materials and formulations with silica nanoparticles: A narrative review

OBJECTIVE

Silica nanoparticles (SNPs) have been extensively studied and used in different dental applications to promote improved physicochemical properties, high substance loading efficiency, in addition to sustained delivery of substances for therapeutic or preventive purposes. Therefore, this study aimed to review the SNPs applications in nanomaterials and nanoformulations in dentistry, discussing their effect on physicochemical properties, biocompatibility and ability to nanocarry bioactive substances.

DATA RESOURCES

Literature searches were conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases to identify studies examining the physicochemical and biological properties of dental materials and formulations containing SNPs. Data extraction was performed by one reviewer and verified by another STUDY SELECTION: A total of 50 were reviewed. In vitro studies reveal that SNPs improved the general properties of dental materials and formulations, such as microhardness, fracture toughness, flexural strength, elastic modulus and surface roughness, in addition to acting as efficient nanocarriers of substances, such as antimicrobial, osteogenic and remineralizing substances, and showed biocompatibility CONCLUSIONS: SNPs are biocompatible, improve properties of dental materials and serve as effective carriers for bioactive substances CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Overall, SNPs are a promising drug delivery system that can improve dental materials biological and physicochemical and aesthetic properties, increasing their longevity and clinical performance. However, more studies are needed to elucidate SNPs short- and long-term effects in the oral cavity, mainly on in vivo and clinical studies, to prove their effectiveness and safety.

Metal-organic frameworks in oral drug delivery

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) offer innovative solutions to the limitations of traditional oral drug delivery systems through their unique combination of metal ions and organic ligands. This review systematically examines the structural properties and principles of MOFs, setting the stage for their application in drug delivery. It discusses various classes of MOFs, including those based on zirconium, iron, zinc, copper, titanium, aluminum, potassium, and magnesium, assessing their drug-loading capacities, biocompatibility, and controlled release mechanisms. The effectiveness of MOFs is illustrated through case studies that highlight their capabilities in enhancing drug solubility, providing protection against the harsh gastrointestinal environment, and enabling precise drug release. The review addresses potential challenges, particularly the toxicity concerns associated with MOFs, and calls for further research into their biocompatibility and interactions with biological systems. It concludes by emphasizing the potential of MOFs in revolutionizing oral drug delivery, highlighting the critical need for comprehensive research to harness their full potential in clinical applications.

Biomedical Metal-Organic Framework Materials: Perspectives and Challenges

Metal-organic framework (MOF) materials are gaining significant interest in biomedical research, owing to their high porosity, crystallinity, and structural and compositional diversity. Their versatile hybrid organic/inorganic chemistry endows MOFs with the capacity to retain organic (drug) molecules, metals, and gases, to effectively channel electrons and photons, to survive harsh physiological conditions such as low pH, and even to protect sensitive biomolecules. Extensive preclinical research has been carried out with MOFs to treat several pathologies and, recently, their integration with other biomedical materials such as stents and implants has demonstrated promising performance in regenerative medicine. However, there remains a significant gap between MOF preclinical research and translation into clinically and societally relevant medicinal products. Here, we outline the intrinsic features of MOFs and discuss how these are suited to specific biomedical applications like detoxification, drug and gas delivery, or as (combination) therapy platforms. We furthermore describe relevant examples of how MOFs have been engineered and evaluated in different medical indications, including cancer, microbial, and inflammatory diseases. Finally, we critically examine the challenges facing their translation into the clinic, with the goal of establishing promising research directions and more realistic approaches that can bridge the translational gap of MOFs and MOF-containing (nano)materials.

MOF-Modified Microrollers for Bioimaging and Sustained Antibiotic Delivery

Central nervous system (CNS) infections caused by neurosurgery or intrathecal injection of contaminated cerebrospinal fluid are a common and difficult complication. Drug-delivery microrobots are among the latest solutions proposed for antibacterial applications. However, there is a lack of research into developing microrobots with the ability to sustain antibody delivery while can move efficiently in the CNS. Here, biocompatible antibacterial metal-organic framework (MOF)-modified microrollers (MMRs) to combat CNS infections are proposed. The MMRs are iron-based metal-organic framework (NH2-MIL-101(Fe)) modified for enhanced adsorption and Fe/Al coated for magnetic actuation and biocompatibility. The MMRs have demonstrated a faster and unhindered magnetically actuated motion on the uneven biological tissue surface in an organ-on-a-chip that mimicked the CNS compared to it on smooth surface. CFD results consistently align with the experimental findings. The MMRs can be loaded with rhodamine 6G for bioimaging, allowing them to be imaged through sections of the main human tissues by fluorescence microscopy, or tetracycline hydrochloride for antibiotic delivery, allowing them to inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms by sustained release of antibiotics for 9 days. This study provides a strategy to integrate high-capacity adsorption material with magnetically actuated locomotion for long-term targeted antibacterial applications in biological environments.

Biomimetic functionalized metal organic frameworks as multifunctional agents: Paving the way for cancer vaccine advances

Biomimetic functionalized metal-organic frameworks (Fn-MOFs) represent a cutting-edge approach in the realm of cancer vaccines. These multifunctional agents, inspired by biological systems, offer unprecedented opportunities for the development of next-generation cancer vaccines. The vast surface area, tunable pore size, and diverse chemistry of MOFs provide a versatile scaffold for the encapsulation and protection of antigenic components, crucial for vaccine stability and delivery. This work delves into the innovative design and application of Fn-MOFs, highlighting their role as carriers for immune enhancement and their potential to revolutionize vaccine delivery. By mimicking natural processes, Fn-MOFs, with their ability to be functionalized with a myriad of chemical and biological entities, exhibit superior biocompatibility and stimuli-responsive behavior and facilitate targeted delivery to tumor sites. This review encapsulates the latest advancements in Fn-MOF technology, from their synthesis and surface modification to their integration into stimuli-responsive and combination therapies. It underscores the significance of biomimetic approaches in overcoming current challenges in cancer vaccine development, such as antigen stability and immune evasion. By leveraging the biomimetic nature of Fn-MOFs, this work paves the way for innovative strategies in cancer vaccines, aiming to induce potent and long-lasting immune responses against malignancies.

Exosomes encapsulated in hydrogels for effective central nervous system drug delivery

The targeted delivery of pharmacologically active molecules, metabolites, and growth factors to the brain parenchyma has become one of the major challenges following the onset of neurodegeneration and pathological conditions. The therapeutic effect of active biomolecules is significantly impaired after systemic administration in the central nervous system (CNS) because of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, the development of novel therapeutic approaches capable of overcoming these limitations is under discussion. Exosomes (Exo) are nano-sized vesicles of endosomal origin that have a high distribution rate in biofluids. Recent advances have introduced Exo as naturally suitable bio-shuttles for the delivery of neurotrophic factors to the brain parenchyma. In recent years, many researchers have attempted to regulate the delivery of Exo to target sites while reducing their removal from circulation. The encapsulation of Exo in natural and synthetic hydrogels offers a valuable strategy to address the limitations of Exo, maintaining their integrity and controlling their release at a desired site. Herein, we highlight the current and novel approaches related to the application of hydrogels for the encapsulation of Exo in the field of CNS tissue engineering.

Recent advances in metal-organic frameworks for stimuli-responsive drug delivery

After entering the human body, drugs for treating diseases, which are prone to delivery and release in an uncontrolled manner, are affected by various factors. Based on this, many researchers utilize various microenvironmental changes encountered during drug delivery to trigger drug release and have proposed stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems. In recent years, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have become promising stimuli-responsive agents to release the loaded therapeutic agents at the target site to achieve more precise drug delivery due to their high drug loading, excellent biocompatibility, and high stimuli-responsiveness. The MOF-based stimuli-responsive systems can respond to various stimuli under pathological conditions at the site of the lesion, releasing the loaded therapeutic agent in a controlled manner, and improving the accuracy and safety of drug delivery. Due to the changes in different physical and chemical factors in the pathological process of diseases, the construction of stimuli-responsive systems based on MOFs has become a new direction in drug delivery and controlled release. Based on the background of the rapidly increasing attention to MOFs applied in drug delivery, we aim to review various MOF-based stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems and their response mechanisms to various stimuli. In addition, the current challenges and future perspectives of MOF-based stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems are also discussed in this review.

Nanomedicine/materdicine-enabled sonocatalytic therapy

The advent of numerous treatment modalities with desirable therapeutic efficacy has been made possible by the fast development of nanomedicine and materdicine, among which the ultrasound (US)-triggered sonocatalytic process as minimal or non-invasive method has been frequently employed for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. In comparison to phototherapeutic approaches with inherent penetration depth limitations, sonocatalytic therapy shatters the depth limit of photoactivation and offers numerous remarkable prospects and advantages, including mitigated side effects and appropriate tissue-penetration depth. Nevertheless, the optimization of sonosensitizers and therapies remains a significant issue in terms of precision, intelligence and efficiency. In light of the fact that nanomedicine and materdicine can effectively enhance the theranostic efficiency, we herein aim to furnish a cutting-edge review on the latest progress and development of nanomedicine/materdicine-enabled sonocatalytic therapy. The design methodologies and biological features of nanomedicine/materdicine-based sonosensitizers are initially introduced to reveal the underlying relationship between composition/structure, sonocatalytic function and biological effect, in accompany with a thorough discussion of nanomedicine/materdicine-enabled synergistic therapy. Ultimately, the facing challenges and future perspectives of this intriguing sonocatalytic therapy are highlighted and outlined to promote technological advancements and clinical translation in efficient disease treatment.

Green Synthesis of pH-Responsive Metal-Organic Frameworks for Delivery of Diclofenac Sodium

The current study developed a drug delivery system through the green chemistry-based synthesis of a biologically friendly metal-organic framework (bio-MOF) called Asp-Cu, which included copper ions and the environmentally friendly molecule L(+)-aspartic acid (Asp). For the first time, diclofenac sodium (DS) was loaded onto the synthesized bio-MOF simultaneously. The system's efficiency was then improved by encapsulating it with sodium alginate (SA). FT-IR, SEM, BET, TGA, and XRD analyses confirmed that DS@Cu-ASP was successfully synthesized. DS@Asp-Cu was found to release the total load within 2 h when used with simulated stomach media. This challenge was overcome by coating DS@Cu-ASP with SA (SA@DS@Cu-ASP). SA@DS@Cu-ASP displayed limited drug release at pH 1.2, and a higher percentage of the drug was released at pH 6.8 and 7.4 due to the pH-responsive nature of SA. In vitro cytotoxicity screening showed that SA@DS@Cu-ASP could be an appropriate biocompatible carrier with >90% cell viability. The on-command drug carrier was observed to be more applicable biocompatible with lower toxicity, as well as adequate loading properties and responsiveness, indicating its applicability as a feasible drug carrier with controlled release.

CD-MOFs: From preparation to drug delivery and therapeutic application

Cyclodextrin metal-organic frameworks (CD-MOFs) show considerable advantages of edibility, degradability, low toxicity, and high drug loading, which have attracted enormous interest, especially in drug delivery. This review summarizes the typical synthesis approaches of CD-MOFs, the drug loading methods, and the mechanism of encapsulation and release. The influence of the structure of CD-MOFs on their drug encapsulation and release is highlighted. Finally, the challenges CD-MOFs face are discussed regarding biosafety assessment systems, stability in aqueous solution, and metal ion effect.

Current status of Fe-based MOFs in biomedical applications

Recently nanoparticle-based platforms have gained interest as drug delivery systems and diagnostic agents, especially in cancer therapy. With their ability to provide preferential accumulation at target sites, nanocarrier-constructed antitumor drugs can improve therapeutic efficiency and bioavailability. In contrast, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received increasing academic interest as an outstanding class of coordination polymers that combine porous structures with high drug loading via temperature modulation and ligand interactions, overcoming the drawbacks of conventional drug carriers. FeIII-based MOFs are one of many with high biocompatibility and good drug loading capacity, as well as unique Fenton reactivity and superparamagnetism, making them highly promising in chemodynamic and photothermal therapy, and magnetic resonance imaging. Given this, this article summarizes the applications of FeIII-based MOFs in three significant fields: chemodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy and MRI, suggesting a logical route to new strategies. This article concludes by summarising the primary challenges and development prospects in these promising research areas.

Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Smart nanoparticles, which can respond to biological cues or be guided by them, are emerging as a promising drug delivery platform for precise cancer treatment. The field of oncology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine has witnessed rapid progress, leading to innovative developments in smart nanoparticles for safer and more effective cancer therapy. In this review, we will highlight recent advancements in smart nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, protein nanoparticles, cell membrane nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, MOF nanoparticles, and others. We will focus on their classification, structures, synthesis, and intelligent features. These smart nanoparticles possess the ability to respond to various external and internal stimuli, such as enzymes, pH, temperature, optics, and magnetism, making them intelligent systems. Additionally, this review will explore the latest studies on tumor targeting by functionalizing the surfaces of smart nanoparticles with tumor-specific ligands like antibodies, peptides, transferrin, and folic acid. We will also summarize different types of drug delivery options, including small molecules, peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and even living cells, for their potential use in cancer therapy. While the potential of smart nanoparticles is promising, we will also acknowledge the challenges and clinical prospects associated with their use. Finally, we will propose a blueprint that involves the use of artificial intelligence-powered nanoparticles in cancer treatment applications. By harnessing the potential of smart nanoparticles, this review aims to usher in a new era of precise and personalized cancer therapy, providing patients with individualized treatment options.

Advances and prospects of tumor immunotherapy mediated by immune cell-derived biomimetic metal-organic frameworks

The clinical translational success of nanomedicine and immunotherapy has already proved the immense potential in the field of nanotechnology and immunization. However, the development of nanomedicine is confronted with challenges such as potential toxicity and unclear nano-bio interactions. The efficacy of immunotherapy is limited to only a few groups. Combining immunotherapy with nanomedicine for multi-modal treatment effectively compensates for the limitations of the above single therapy. Immune cell membrane camouflaged metal-organic frameworks (ICM-MOFs) have emerged as a simple yet promising multimodal treatment strategy that possess multifunctional nanoscale properties and exhibit immune cell-like behaviors of stealth, targeting and immunomodulation. Here, we comprehensively discuss the latest advancements in ICM-MOFs, with a focus on the challenges of mono-immunotherapy, the superiority of biomimetic coating for MOF functionalization, preparation methods, related action mechanisms and biomedical applications. Finally, we address the challenges and prospects for clinical translation.

Peptide nucleic acid-zirconium coordination nanoparticles

Ideal drug carriers feature a high loading capacity to minimize the exposure of patients with excessive, inactive carrier materials. The highest imaginable loading capacity could be achieved by nanocarriers, which are assembled from the therapeutic cargo molecules themselves. Here, we describe peptide nucleic acid (PNA)-based zirconium (Zr) coordination nanoparticles which exhibit very high PNA loading of [Formula: see text] w/w. This metal-organic hybrid nanomaterial class extends the enormous compound space of coordination polymers towards bioactive oligonucleotide linkers. The architecture of single- or double-stranded PNAs was systematically varied to identify design criteria for the coordination driven self-assembly with Zr(IV) nodes at room temperature. Aromatic carboxylic acid functions, serving as Lewis bases, and a two-step synthesis process with preformation of [Formula: see text] turned out to be decisive for successful nanoparticle assembly. Confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed that the PNA-Zr nanoparticles are readily internalized by cells. PNA-Zr nanoparticles, coated with a cationic lipopeptide, successfully delivered an antisense PNA sequence for splicing correction of the [Formula: see text]-globin intron mutation IVS2-705 into a functional reporter cell line and mediated splice-switching via interaction with the endogenous mRNA splicing machinery. The presented PNA-Zr nanoparticles represent a bioactive platform with high design flexibility and extraordinary PNA loading capacity, where the nucleic acid constitutes an integral part of the material, instead of being loaded into passive delivery systems.

Reticular Chemistry for Optical Sensing of Anions

In the last few decades, reticular chemistry has grown significantly as a field of porous crystalline molecular materials. Scientists have attempted to create the ideal platform for analyzing distinct anions based on optical sensing techniques (chromogenic and fluorogenic) by assembling different metal-containing units with suitable organic linking molecules and different organic molecules to produce crystalline porous materials. This study presents novel platforms for anion recognition based on reticular chemistry with high selectivity, sensitivity, electronic tunability, structural recognition, strong emission, and thermal and chemical stability. The key materials for reticular chemistry, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks (ZIFs), and Covalent-Organic Frameworks (COFs), and the pre- and post-synthetic modification of the linkers and the metal oxide clusters for the selective detection of the anions, have been discussed. The mechanisms involved in sensing are also discussed.

NF-κB pathway affects silica nanoparticle-induced fibrosis via inhibited inflammatory response and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in 3D co-culture

Long-term inhalation of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) can induce pulmonary fibrosis (PF), nevertheless, the potential mechanisms remain elusive. Herein, we constructed a three-dimensional (3D) co-culture model by using Matrigel to investigate the interaction among different cells and potential regulatory mechanisms after SiNPs exposure. Methodologically, we dynamically observed the changes in cell morphology and migration after exposure to SiNPs by co-culturing mouse monocytic macrophages (RAW264.7), human non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549), and medical research council cell strain-5 (MRC-5) in Matrigel for 24 h. Subsequently, we detected the expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), inflammatory factor and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers. The results showed that SiNPs produced toxic effects on cells. In the 3D co-culture state, the cell's movement velocity and displacement increased, and the cell migration ability was enhanced. Meanwhile, the expression of inflammatory factor tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) were upregulated, the epithelial marker E-cadherin (E-cad) was downregulated, the mesenchymal marker N-cadherin (N-cad) and myofibroblast marker alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression were upregulated, while NF-κB expression was also upregulated after SiNPs exposure. We further found that cells were more prone to transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts in the 3D co-culture state. Conversely, utilizing the NF-κB-specific inhibitor BAY 11-7082 effectively downregulated the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), N-cad, α-SMA, collagen-I (COL I), and fibronectin (FN), the expression of E-cad was upregulated. These findings suggest that NF-κB is involved in regulating SiNPs-induced inflammatory, EMT, and fibrosis in the 3D co-culture state.

High Proton Conductivity of the UiO-66-NH2-SPES Composite Membrane Prepared by Covalent Cross-Linking

A sulfonated poly(ethersulfone) (SPES)-metal-organic framework (MOF) film with excellent proton conductivity was synthesized by anchoring UiO-66-NH₂ to the main chain of the aromatic polymer through the Hinsberg reaction. The chemical bond was formed between the amino group in MOFs and the -SO₂Cl group in chlorosulfonated poly(ethersulfones) to conduct protons in the proton channel of the membrane, making the membrane have excellent proton conductivity. UiO-66-NH₂ is successfully prepared as a result of the consistency of the experimental and simulated powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns of MOFs. The existence of absorption peaks of characteristic functional groups in Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra proved the successful preparation of SPES, PES-SO₂Cl, and a composite film. The results of the AC impedance test indicate that the composite film with a 3% mass fraction has the best proton conductivity of 0.215 S·cm^-1, which is 6.2 times higher than that of the blended film without a chemical bond at 98% RH and 353 K. To our knowledge, there are rarely any reports on the preparation of a composite membrane by directly linking MOFs and the membrane matrix with chemical bonds. This work provides a good way to synthesize the highly conductive proton exchange film.

Anticancer activity of lactoferrin-coated biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles for combating different human cancer cells via mediating apoptotic effects

The present study aims to develop a novel nanocombination with high selectivity against several invasive cancer cells, sparing normal cells and tissues. Bovine lactoferrin (bLF) has recently captured the interest of numerous medical fields owing to its biological activities and well-known immunomodulatory effects. BLF is an ideal protein to be encapsulated or adsorbed into selenium nanocomposites (Se NPs) in order to produce stable nanocombinations with potent anticancer effects and improved immunological functions. The biosynthesis of the functionalized Se NPs was achieved using Rhodotorula sp. strain MZ312359 via a simultaneous bio-reduction approach to selenium sodium salts. The physicochemical properties of Se NPs using SEM, TEM, FTIR, UV Vis, XRD, and EDX confirmed the formation of uniform agglomerated spheres with a size of 18-40 nm. Se NPs were successfully embedded in apo-LF (ALF), forming a novel nanocombination of ALF-Se NPs with a spherical shape and an average nanosize of less than 200 nm. The developed ALF-Se NPs significantly displayed an effective anti-proliferation efficiency against many cancer cells, including MCF-7, HepG-2, and Caco-2 cell lines, as compared to Se NPs and ALF in free forms. ALF-Se NPs showed a significant selectivity impact (> 64) against all treated cancer cells at IC50 63.10 ≤ μg/mL, as well as the strongest upregulation of p53 and suppression of Bcl-2, MMP-9, and VEGF genes. Besides, ALF-Se NPs were able to show the maximum activation of transcrition of key redox mediator (Nrf2) with suppression in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels inside all treated cancer cells. This study demonstrates that this novel nanocombination of ALF-Se NPs has superior selectivity and apoptosis-mediating anticancer activity over free ALF or individual form of Se NPs.

Inorganic nanoparticles as scaffolds for bioorthogonal catalysts

Bioorthogonal transition metal catalysts (TMCs) transform therapeutically inactive molecules (pro-drugs) into active drug compounds. Inorganic nanoscaffolds protect and solubilize catalysts while offering a flexible design space for decoration with targeting elements and stimuli-responsive activity. These "drug factories" can activate pro-drugs in situ, localizing treatment to the disease site and minimizing off-target effects. Inorganic nanoscaffolds provide structurally diverse scaffolds for encapsulating TMCs. This ability to define the catalyst environment can be employed to enhance the stability and selectivity of the TMC, providing access to enzyme-like bioorthogonal processes. The use of inorganic nanomaterials as scaffolds TMCs and the use of these bioorthogonal nanozymes in vitro and in vivo applications will be discussed in this review.

Biosynthesis and characterization of nanoparticles, its advantages, various aspects and risk assessment to maintain the sustainable agriculture: Emerging technology in modern era science

The current review aims to gain knowledge on the biosynthesis and characterization of nanoparticles (NPs), their multifactorial role, and emerging trends of NPs utilization in modern science, particularly in sustainable agriculture, for increased yield to solve the food problem in the coming era. However, it is well known that an environment-friendly resource is in excessive demand, and green chemistry is an advanced and rising resource in exploring eco-friendly processes. Plant extracts or other resources can be utilized to synthesize different types of NPS. Hence NPs can be synthesized by organic or inorganic molecules. Inorganic molecules are hydrophilic, biocompatible, and highly steady compared to organic types. NPs occur in numerous chemical conformations ranging from amphiphilic molecules to metal oxides, from artificial polymers to bulky biomolecules. NPs structures can be examined by different approaches, i.e., Raman spectroscopy, optical spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, and solid-state NMR. Nano-agrochemical is a unification of nanotechnology and agro-chemicals, which has brought about the manufacture of nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, nano-herbicides, nano-insecticides, and nano-fungicides. NPs can also be utilized as an antimicrobial solution, but the mode of action for antibacterial NPs is poorly understood. Presently known mechanisms comprise the induction of oxidative stress, the release of metal ions, and non-oxidative stress. Multiple modes of action towards microbes would be needed in a similar bacterial cell for antibacterial resistance to develop. Finally, we visualize multidisciplinary cooperative methods will be essential to fill the information gap in nano-agrochemicals and drive toward the usage of green NPs in agriculture and plant science study.

Linezolid@MOF-74 as a host-guest system with antimicrobial activity

Linezolid (LNZ) is a new-generation synthetic molecule for the antibacterial treatment of severe infections, particularly in infective cases where the bacterial resistance to first-choice drugs is caused by Gram-positive pathogens. In this context, since 2009, some strains resistant to LNZ in patients with long-term treatments have been reported. Therefore, there is a need to use not only new drug molecules with antibacterial activities in the dosage form but also a different approach to pharmacotherapeutic strategies for skin infections, which lead to a reduction in the concentration of biocides. This work explores LNZ hosted at two isostructural MOFs, MOF-74(Zn) and MOF-74(Cu), as promising antimicrobial systems for gradual biocide release within 6 h. These systems reach a lower minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) in comparison to free LNZ. Even a decreased MIC value is also observed, which is an encouraging result regarding the efficiency of the systems to control concentration-dependent antimicrobial resistance.

Cyclodextrin metal-organic framework-based protein biocomposites

Materials are needed to increase the stability and half-life of therapeutic proteins during delivery. These materials should be biocompatible and biodegradable. Here, we demonstrate that enzymes and immunoproteins can be encapsulated inside cyclodextrin based metal-organic frameworks using potassium as the metal node. The release profile can be controlled with the solubility of the cyclodextrin linker. The activity of the proteins after release is determined using catalytic and in vitro assays. The results show that cyclodextrin metal-organic framework-based protein biocomposites are a promising class of materials to deliver therapeutic proteins.

Immunoassay based on urease-encapsulated metal-organic framework for sensitive detection of foodborne pathogen with pH meter as a readout

The potential of enzyme-encapsulated metal-organic framework (MOF) as an antibody label for the construction of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is demonstrated. Zeolitic imidazolate framework-90 (ZIF-90) was employed as a MOF model to load urease and pig immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody. This leads to the production of U@ZIF-90/IgG composite, in which urease was encapsulated in ZIF-90 to form U@ZIF-90 for amplifying the detection signal, while IgG was anchored on the surface of U@ZIF-90 for specifically recognizing Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Benefiting from the unique porous structure of ZIF-90, the U@ZIF-90 not only allows urease to be encapsulated with an ultrahigh loading efficiency, but also shields the loaded urease against harsh environments. The U@ZIF-90 shows a threefold higher catalytic activity than free urease due to the confinement effect. These findings lead to an ELISA with greatly enhanced sensitivity for S. aureus detection. By using a portable pH meter as a readout, the ELISA has a linear response that covers 10 to 10⁹ CFU/mL S. aureus with a detection limit of 1.96 CFU/mL and exhibits high selectivity over other bacteria. The successful determination of S. aureus in milk samples demonstrates the applicability of the ELISA in a complex biological matrix.

A review of synthesis, fabrication, and emerging biomedical applications of metal-organic frameworks

The overwhelming potential of porous coordination polymers (PCP), also known as Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), especially their nanostructures for various biomedical applications, have made these materials worth investigating for more applications and uses. MOFs unique structure has enabled them for most applications, particularly in biomedical and healthcare. A number of very informative review papers are available on the biomedical applications of MOFs for the reader's convenience. However, many of those reviews focus mainly on drug delivery applications, and no significant work has been reported on other MOFs for biomedical applications. This review aims to present a compact and highly informative global assessment of the recent developments in biomedical applications (excluding drug-delivery) of MOFs along with critical analysis. Researchers have recently adopted both synthetic and post-synthetic routes for the fabrication and modification of MOFs that have been discussed and analyzed. A critical review of the latest reports on the significant and exotic area of bio-sensing capabilities and applications of MOFs has been given in this study. In addition, other essential applications of MOFs, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and antimicrobial activities, are also included. These recently grown emergent techniques and cancer treatment options have gained attention and require further investigations to achieve fruitful outcomes. MOF's role in these applications has been thoroughly discussed, along with future challenges and valuable suggestions for the research community that will help meet future demands.

Research Progress Based on Regulation of Tumor Microenvironment Redox and Drug-Loaded Metal-Organic Frameworks

The process of tumor growth and deterioration is accompanied by increased oxygen free radicals, high glutathione concentration, hypoxia, and poor drug targeting during treatment, limiting the treatment of tumors. Metal-organic framework (MOF) preparations are continuously being developed and applied in tumor therapy. In this paper, the design and application of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and redox drug-loaded MOF preparations are reviewed. Moreover, the research challenges and application prospects of MOFs in tumor therapy are also discussed.

SARS-CoV-2 virus label-free electrochemical nanohybrid MIP-aptasensor based on Ni3(BTC)2 MOF as a high-performance surface substrate

A dual recognition biosensor was developed via introducing aptamer strings and molecular imprinting polymer (MIP) for the selective detection of intact SARS-CoV-2 virus based on screen printed carbon electrode (SPCE) modified with nickel-benzene tricarboxylic acid-metal–organic framework (Ni₃(BTC)₂ MOF) synthesized by in situ growth method, SARS-CoV-2 S protein-specific amino-aptamer and electropolymerization of dopamine (ePDA). The proposed biosensor showed an excellent linear relationship between charge transfer resistance (R_ct) and increase in virus concentration in the range 10 to 10⁸ plaque-forming units/mL (PFU/mL) with a low detection limit of 3.3 ± 0.04 PFU/mL and response time of 20 min. Compared with single-element sensors (aptamer or MIP), it showed higher selectivity for  the SARS-CoV-2 virus and facilitated detection in real samples.

Synthesis of Bioactive Yttrium-Metal-Organic Framework as Efficient Nanocatalyst in Synthesis of Novel Pyrazolopyranopyrimidine Derivatives and Evaluation of Anticancer Activity

Novel Yttrium-metal-organic framework (Y-MOF) was synthesized under optimal conditions of microwave with a power of 20 W, the temperature of 30 degrees of centigrade, and time duration of 10 min. The products were characterized by SEM (morphology and size distribution), TGA (thermal stability), BET technique (surface area), and FTIR (characterization of the related group). The Yttrium-metal-organic framework (Y-MOF) synthesized in this study, after identifying and confirming the structure, was used as an efficient and recyclable catalyst in the synthesis of new pyrazolopyranopyrimidine derivatives. Following the study of the properties and applications of Y-MOF, its anticancer properties on breast cancer cells based on the MTT method were evaluated, and significant results were observed. In addition, the anticancer properties of the pyrazolopyranopyrimidine derivatives were investigated.

Green synthesis of DOX-loaded hollow MIL-100 (Fe) nanoparticles for anticancer treatment by targeting mitochondria

Fe-based Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are promising drug delivery materials due to their large surface area, high stability, and biocompatibility. However, their drug loading capacity is constrained by their small pore size, and a further improvement in their drug capacity is needed. In this work, we report an effective and green structural modification strategy to improve drug loading capacity for Fe-based MOFs. Our strategy is to grow MIL-100 (Fe) on carboxylate-terminated polystyrene (PS-COOH) via a sustainable route, which creates a large inner cavity as well as exposure of more functional groups that benefit drug loading capacity. We perform the scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope to confirm the hollow structure of MIL-100 (Fe). Up to 30% of drug loading capacity has been demonstrated in our study. We also conduct cell viability tests to investigate its therapeutic effects on breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). Confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging confirms cellular uptake and mitochondrial targeting function of doxorubicin-loaded H-M (DOX@H-M) nanoparticles. JC-1 staining of cancer cells reveals a significant change in the mitochondrial membrane potential, indicating the mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis of tumor cells. Our study paves the way for facile synthesis of hollow structural MOFs, and demonstrates the potential of applying Fe-based MOFs in breast cancer treatment.

Reticular Nanoscience: Bottom-Up Assembly Nanotechnology

The chemistry of metal-organic and covalent organic frameworks (MOFs and COFs) is perhaps the most diverse and inclusive among the chemical sciences, and yet it can be radically expanded by blending it with nanotechnology. The result is reticular nanoscience, an area of reticular chemistry that has an immense potential in virtually any technological field. In this perspective, we explore the extension of such an interdisciplinary reach by surveying the explored and unexplored possibilities that framework nanoparticles can offer. We localize these unique nanosized reticular materials at the juncture between the molecular and the macroscopic worlds, and describe the resulting synthetic and analytical chemistry, which is fundamentally different from conventional frameworks. Such differences are mirrored in the properties that reticular nanoparticles exhibit, which we described while referring to the present state-of-the-art and future promising applications in medicine, catalysis, energy-related applications, and sensors. Finally, the bottom-up approach of reticular nanoscience, inspired by nature, is brought to its full extension by introducing the concept of augmented reticular chemistry. Its approach departs from a single-particle scale to reach higher mesoscopic and even macroscopic dimensions, where framework nanoparticles become building units themselves and the resulting supermaterials approach new levels of sophistication of structures and properties.

Size-Dependent Properties of Solution-Processable Conductive MOF Nanocrystals

The diverse optical, magnetic, and electronic behaviors of most colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals emerge from materials with limited structural and elemental compositions. Conductive metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) possess rich compositions with complex architectures but remain unexplored as nanocrystals, hindering their incorporation into scalable devices. Here, we report the controllable synthesis of conductive MOF nanoparticles based on Fe(1,2,3-triazolate)₂. Sizes can be tuned to as small as 5.5 nm, ensuring indefinite colloidal stability. These solution-processable MOFs can be analyzed by solution-state spectroscopy and electrochemistry and cast into conductive thin films with excellent uniformity. This unprecedented analysis of MOF materials reveals a strong size dependence in optical and electronic behaviors sensitive to the intrinsic porosity and guest-host interactions of MOFs. These results provide a radical departure from typical MOF characterization, enabling insights into physical properties otherwise impossible with bulk analogues while offering a roadmap for the future of MOF nanoparticle synthesis and device fabrication.

Cracking the immune fingerprint of metal-organic frameworks

The human body is in a never-ending chess game against pathogens. When the immune system, our natural defence tool, is weakened, these organisms are able to escape, overcoming the body's contingency plan, which results in the body going into a pathological state. To overcome this checkmate status, emerging nanomedicines have been successfully employed as one of the best tactics for boosting the immune response, manipulating the body's defence tools for the specific recognition/elimination of pathological cells via the active ingredient delivery. However, the vast majority of these drug-delivery systems (DDS) are considered to be exclusively passive vehicles, with nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nanoMOFs) attracting a great deal of attention due to their versatility and ability to carry and deliver exceptional drug payloads and to modulate their biological bypass. Nonetheless, their intrinsic immunogenicity character has been never addressed. Considering the immense possibilities that nanoMOFs offer as a treatment platform, the present study aimed to unveil the immunological fingerprint of MOFs, including an in-deep evaluation of the cellular oxidation balance, the inflammation and recruitment of immune cells and the precise Th1/Th2 cytokine profile that is triggered. This study aims to gain insights that will make more feasible the design of customized immune-active MOF nanoplatforms according to targeted diseases, as the next ace up immune system sleeve.

Pore engineering of biomolecule-based metal–organic framework nanocarriers for improving loading and release of paclitaxel

There has been growing interest in employing metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) incorporated with biomolecules, known as b-MOFs, in biomedical applications.

The Impact of MOF in pH-dependent Drug Delivery System: Progress in Last Decade

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials of one-, two-, or three-dimensional networks manufactured from metal ions/clusters and multidentate organic linkers through coordination bonding. MOFs are one of the most...

Microneedle-mediated delivery of MIL-100(Fe) as a tumor microenvironment-responsive biodegradable nanoplatform for O2-evolving chemophototherapy

The low oxygen level in tumors significantly reduces the antitumor efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT). The provision of O₂ and monomeric hydrophobic photosensitizers (PSs) under physiological conditions would greatly help to shrink malignant tumors. We take advantage of the high porosity and multifunctionality of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) to fabricate a simple all-in-one nanoplatform mediated by microneedle delivery to achieve synergistic O₂ evolution and chemophototherapy. An iron(III)-based MOF (MIL-100(Fe)) acted not only as a vehicle for the concurrent delivery of zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) and doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox), but also to supply O₂ by decomposing hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the tumor microenvironment via a Fenton-like reaction. In vitro and in vivo experiments indicated that the nanoplatform had excellent biocompatibility and exerted enhanced anticancer effects. The encapsulated drug was sustainably released from the nanoplatform skeleton in response to acidic tumor microenvironments. Moreover, upon 660 nm light irradiation, ZnPc effectively produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to the reduction of hypoxia by MIL-100(Fe). A microneedle technique was adopted to directly deliver the nanoplatform into superficial tumors rather than via systemic circulation. Hence, this study provides a new strategy for more efficient chemophototherapy of hypoxic superficial tumors.

A cascaded copper-based nanocatalyst by modulating glutathione and cyclooxygenase-2 for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Sorafenib-mediated chemotherapy is currently the first choice for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that cannot be surgically excised, and can significantly improve the survival of patients. However, its poor water solubility restricts its bioavailability, and long-term single use of it does not achieve satisfactory HCC therapy effects. Herein, we report a novel cascaded copper-based metal-organic framework (MOF) therapeutic nanocatalyst using HKUST-1 by integrating cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor meloxicam (Mel) and chemotherapeutic agent sorafenib (Sol) to amplify HCC therapy. This HKUST-1 nanocatalyst can be degraded by glutathione (GSH) into a Fenton-like agent to trigger chemodynamic therapy (CDT). CDT-mediated cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) can activate ferroptosis by accumulating lipid peroxides (LPO). Alternatively, GSH depletion not only deactivates glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) to trigger ferroptosis, but also leads to oxidative stress amplification. Moreover, Sol can also activate ferroptosis by inhibiting system XC^-, resulting in cascade-amplified ferroptosis mediated HCC therapy. Furthermore, the down-regulation of COX-2 can induce PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy to further act synergistically with Sol-mediated chemotherapy. Therefore, this HKUST-1 nanocatalyst provides a novel strategy to regulate GSH and COX-2 levels for amplified chemo/chemodynamic and ferroptosis-mediated HCC therapy.

Insights on Luminescent Micro- and Nanospheres of Infinite Coordination Polymers

Coordination polymers have been extensively studied in recent years. Some of these materials can exhibit several properties such as permanent porosity, high surface area, thermostability and light emission, as well as open sites for chemical functionalization. Concerning the fact that this kind of compounds are usually solids, the size and morphology of the particles are important parameters when an application is desired. Inside this context, there is a subclass of coordination polymers, named infinite coordination polymers (ICPs), which auto-organize as micro- or nanoparticles with low crystallinity. Specifically, the particles exhibiting spherical shapes and reduced sizes can be better dispersed, enter cells much easier than bulk crystals and be converted to inorganic materials by topotactic transformation. Luminescent ICPs, in particular, can find applications in several areas, such as sensing probes, light-emitting devices and bioimaging. In this review, we present the state-of-the-art of ICP-based spherical particles, including the growth mechanisms, some applications for luminescent ICPs and the challenges to overcome in future commercial usage of these materials.

Biodegradable Metal Organic Frameworks for Multimodal Imaging and Targeting Theranostics

Though there already had been notable progress in developing efficient therapeutic strategies for cancers, there still exist many requirements for significant improvement of the safety and efficiency of targeting cancer treatment. Thus, the rational design of a fully biodegradable and synergistic bioimaging and therapy system is of great significance. Metal organic framework (MOF) is an emerging class of coordination materials formed from metal ion/ion clusters nodes and organic ligand linkers. It arouses increasing interest in various areas in recent years. The unique features of adjustable composition, porous and directional structure, high specific surface areas, biocompatibility, and biodegradability make it possible for MOFs to be utilized as nano-drugs or/and nanocarriers for multimodal imaging and therapy. This review outlines recent advances in developing MOFs for multimodal treatment of cancer and discusses the prospects and challenges ahead.