Luteolin alleviates neuroinflammation via downregulating the TLR4/TRAF6/NF-κB pathway after intracerebral hemorrhage

The efficacy and mechanisms of Maiguanfukang Tablets, a patented herbal-based TCM formula, for the treatment of atherosclerosis: An in vivo experiment based on the network pharmacology

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy and potential mechanisms of MGFKP on rabbit atherosclerotic models.

METHODS

The left carotid balloon injury surgery were used to establish the rabbit atherosclerotic model, followed by the administration of MGFKP from the second postoperative for 6 weeks. Left carotid ultrasound and histological analysis were determined to evaluate the anti-atherosclerotic efficacy of MGFKP. Additionally, LC-MS and network pharmacology were conducted to identify the active ingredients of MGFKP and their targets, respectively. Lastly, core targets were selected to validate using immunohistochemical staining, western blot or ELISA.

RESULTS

The results revealed that the vascular diameters difference, plaque area, plaque thickness, and ratio of vessel lumen to vessel cross-section radius were significantly improved following treatment with MGFKP (P<0.05). 539 ingredients of MGFKP were identified by LC-MS, and 23 ingredients were screened using SwissADME for network pharmacology. After combining the results of PPI and KEGG analyses with published literature, TLR4, NF-κB, IL-1β, and TNF-α were selected for the ensuing analyses. Molecular docking of most compounds showed satisfactory docking energy between TLR4, NF-κB, IL-1β, and TNF-α with their matched compounds. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis of TLR4 and western blot results of NF-κB, TNF-α, and IL-1β demonstrated that these proteins levels were obviously increased in the model group and significantly decreased in MGFKP group (P<0.05). The levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β were also significantly reduced following MGFKP treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

MGFKP is a potential drug for the treatment of atherosclerosis, and might suppress the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway to alleviate atherosclerotic plaque progression.

Luteolin ameliorates chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice by promoting the Arginase-1+ microglial phenotype via a PPARγ-dependent mechanism

Accumulating evidence shows that neuroinflammation substantially contributes to the pathology of depression, a severe psychiatric disease with an increasing prevalence worldwide. Although modulating microglial phenotypes is recognized as a promising therapeutic strategy, effective treatments are still lacking. Previous studies have shown that luteolin (LUT) has anti-inflammatory effects and confers benefits on chronic stress-induced depression. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms by which LUT regulates the functional phenotypes of microglia in mice with depressive-like behaviors. Mice were exposed to chronic restraint stress (CRS) for 7 weeks, and were administered LUT (10, 30, 40 mg· kg-1 ·day-1, i.g.) in the last 4 weeks. We showed that LUT administration significantly ameliorated depressive-like behaviors and decreased hippocampal inflammation. LUT administration induced pro-inflammatory microglia to undergo anti-inflammatory arginase (Arg)-1+ phenotypic polarization, which was associated with its antidepressant effects. Furthermore, we showed that LUT concentration-dependently increased the expression of PPARγ in LPS + ATP-treated microglia and the hippocampus of CRS-exposed mice, promoting the subsequent inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and microscale thermophoresis (MST) analysis confirmed a direct interaction between LUT and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). By using the PPARγ antagonist GW9662, we demonstrated that LUT-driven protection, both in vivo and in vitro, resulted from targeting PPARγ. First, LUT-induced Arg-1+ microglia were no longer detected when PPARγ was blocked. Next, LUT-mediated inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome and downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine production were reversed by the inhibition of PPARγ. Finally, the protective effects of LUT, which attenuated the microglial engulfment of synapses and prevented apparent synapse loss in the hippocampus of CRS-exposed mice, were eliminated by blocking PPARγ. In conclusion, this study showed that LUT ameliorates CRS-induced depressive-like behaviors by promoting the Arg-1+ microglial phenotype through a PPARγ-dependent mechanism, thereby alleviating microglial pro-inflammatory responses and reversing microglial phagocytosis-mediated synapse loss.

Investigating the mechanism of Sinisan formula in depression treatment: a comprehensive analysis using GEO datasets, network pharmacology, and molecular docking

The herbal formula Sinisan (SNS) is a commonly used treatment for depression; however, its mechanism of action remains unclear. This article uses a combination of the GEO database, network pharmacology and molecular docking technologies to investigate the mechanism of action of SNS. The aim is to provide new insights and methods for future depression treatments. The study aims to extract effective compounds and targets for the treatment of depression from the T CMSP database. Relevant targets were searched using the GEO, Disgenet, Drugbank, PharmGKB and T T D databases, followed by screening of core targets. In addition, GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses were performed to explore potential pathways for the treatment of depression. Molecular docking was used to evaluate the potential targets and compounds and to identify the optimal core protein-compound complex. Molecular dynamics was used to further investigate the dynamic variability and stability of the complex. The study identified 118 active SNS components and 208 corresponding targets. Topological analysis of P P I networks identified 11 core targets. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses revealed that the mechanism of action for depression involves genes associated with inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and the MAP K3 and P I3K-Akt signalling pathways. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations showed a strong binding affinity between these compounds and the screened targets, indicating promising biological activity. The present study investigated the active components, targets and pathways of SNS in the treatment of depression. Through a preliminary investigation, key signalling pathways and compounds were identified. These findings provide new directions and ideas for future research on the therapeutic mechanism of SNS and its clinical application in the treatment of depression.

Therapeutic potential of flavonoids in neuroprotection: brain and spinal cord injury focus

Flavonoids in fruits, vegetables, and plant-based drinks have potential neuroprotective properties, with clinical research focusing on their role in reducing oxidative stress, controlling inflammation, and preventing apoptosis. Some flavonoids, such as quercetin, kaempferol, fisetin, apigenin, luteolin, chrysin, baicalein, catechin, epigallocatechin gallate, naringenin, naringin, hesperetin, genistein, rutin, silymarin, and daidzein, have been presented to help heal damage to the central nervous system by affecting key signaling pathways including PI3K/Akt and NF-κB. This review systematically analyzed articles on flavonoids, neuroprotection, and brain and spinal cord injury from primary medical databases like Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science. Flavonoids enhance antioxidant defenses, reduce pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and aid cell survival and repair by focusing on specific molecular pathways. Clinical trials are also exploring the application of preclinical results to therapeutic approaches for patients with spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury. Flavonoids can enhance injury healing, reduce lesion size, and enhance synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. The full potential of flavonoids lies in their bioavailability, dose, and administration methods, but there are still challenges to overcome. This review explores flavonoid-induced neuroprotection, its clinical implications, future research opportunities, and molecular mechanisms, highlighting the potential for innovative CNS injury therapies and improved patient health outcomes.

The protection of bisphenol A-modulated miRNAs and targets by natural products

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant with endocrine-disrupting functions. Identifying protective drugs and exploring the mechanisms against BPA are crucial in healthcare. Natural products exhibiting antioxidant properties are considered to be able to protect against BPA toxicity. Although BPA-modulated targets and miRNAs have been individually reported, their connections to natural products were rarely organized. With the help of a protein-protein interaction database (STRING), the relationship between individual BPA-modulated targets was interconnected to provide a systemic view. In this review, BPA-downregulated and -upregulated targets are classified, and their interactive network was innovatively analyzed using the bioinformatic database (STRING). BPA-modulated miRNAs were also retrieved and ingeniously connected to BPA-modulated targets. Moreover, a novel connection between BPA-countering natural products was integrated into BPA-modulated miRNAs and targets. All these targets-associated natural products and/or miRNAs were incorporated into the STRING network, providing systemic relationships. Overall, the BPA-modulated target-miRNA-protecting natural product axis was innovatively constructed, providing a straightforward direction for exploring the integrated BPA-countering effects and mechanisms of natural products.

Characterization of Metabolites and Transcriptome of Pepper Accessions from Four Southern Provinces of China

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a widely grown vegetable and spice crop worldwide. This study aims to reveal the differences of metabolites among pepper accessions from different regions and explore candidate genes related to metabolites of pepper.

METHODS

The metabolome and transcriptome of 36 pepper accessions were determined by widely targeted metabolomics analysis and RNA sequencing technology, and the differential metabolites and differential genes among C. annuum from four important pepper production and consumption provinces of China, Hunan, Guizhou, Yunnan and Sichuan, were analyzed.

RESULTS

Flavonoids are the main characteristic metabolites that distinguish pepper accessions from Yun_Gui_Chuan Group and Hunan Group. The aglycones of characteristic flavonoids in each group are different; in Yun_Gui_Chuan Group mainly are luteolin, quercetin, chrysoeriol and isorhamnetin; in Hunan Group mainly are apigenin. Transcriptome data showed that two genes related to flavonoid 3'-monooxygenase differed significantly between the two groups of chili peppers, and we speculated that they may be the core enzymes regulating their flavonoid profile. And an SNP mutation located in gene Cgla06g001871 showed a strong correlation with pepper accessions from Yun_Gui_Chuan Group, which can be used as a DNA marker to identify pepper accessions from Yun_Gui_Chuan Group, and provide strong support for regional specialty variety conservation. In addition, we also analyzed the metabolites related to the taste and nutrition of pepper accessions in the four provinces, and the results showed that the sugar content of pepper accessions from Guizhou was low and the capsaicinoids content of pepper accessions from Sichuan was low, while no significant difference was found in acid and vitamin contents among pepper accessions from the four provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

The metabolome and transcriptome of 36 pepper accessions from four important pepper production and consumption provinces of China were determined, and the characteristic metabolites and expressed genes of pepper accessions from each province were analyzed.

Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 alleviates secondary brain injury by reducing neuronal pyroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage

Secondary brain injury (SBI) is one of the main causes of high mortality and disability rates following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) plays a crucial role in the process of pyroptosis, and modulating its expression may present a novel therapeutic strategy for mitigating brain injury. This study aims to explore the mechanisms of TRAF6 in pyroptosis after ICH. C57BL/6J mice were used to establish the ICH model. Brain was collected at different time points for q-PCR and western blot to detect the level of TRAF6. After the C25-140 (the TRAF6 inhibitor) was administrated, the mice were divided into four groups. Then, the neurological deficit, brain water content, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage were detected. Immunofluorescence and western blot were used to detect the level of pyroptosis proteins, and ELISA and q-PCR were used to detect the levels of IL-18 and IL-1β. TRAF6 expression was upregulated after ICH and was mainly expressed in neurons. Inhibition of TRAF6 expression with C25-140 alleviated neurological deficits and reduced brain edema after ICH. In addition, inhibition of TRAF6 also reduced the expression of pyroptosis inflammasomes such as GSDMD, NLRP3, and ASC, as well as neurological damage caused by IL-18 and IL-1β after ICH. TRAF6 regulates neuronal pyroptosis in SBI after ICH. Inhibition of TRAF6 may be a potential target for alleviating inflammatory damage after ICH.

Therapeutic Expedition of Luteolin against Brain-related Disorders: An Updated Review

Brain-related disorders include neuroinflammation, neurodegenerative disorders, and demyelination, which ultimately affect the quality of life of patients. Currently, brain-related disorders represent the most challenging health problem worldwide due to complex pathogenesis and limited availability of drugs for their management. Further, the available pharmacotherapy accompanies serious side effects, therefore, much attention has been directed toward the development of alternative therapy derived from natural sources to treat such disorders. Recently, flavonoids, natural phytochemicals, have been reported as a treatment option for preventing brain aging and disorders related to this. Among these flavonoids, dietary luteolin, a flavone, is found in many plant products such as broccoli, chamomile tea, and honeysuckle bloom having several pharmacological properties including neuroprotective activities. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to compile the available literature regarding the neuroprotective potential of luteolin and its mechanism of action. Luteolin exerts notable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic activity suggesting its therapeutic efficacy in different neurological disorders. Numerous in-vivo and in-vitro experiments have revealed that luteolin exhibits neuroprotective potential via up-regulating the ER/ERK, PI3AKT, Nrf2 pathways and down-regulating the MAPK/JAK2STAT and NFκB pathways. Taking into account of available facts regarding the neuroprotective efficacy of luteolin, the current study highlights the beneficial effects of luteolin for the prevention, management, and treatment of different neurological disorders. Thus, luteolin can be considered an alternative for the development of new pharmacophores against various brain-related disorders.

ATP5J regulates microglial activation via mitochondrial dysfunction, exacerbating neuroinflammation in intracerebral hemorrhage

Microglial-mediated neuroinflammation is crucial in the pathophysiological mechanisms of secondary brain injury (SBI) following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Mitochondria are central regulators of inflammation, influencing key pathways such as alternative splicing, and play a critical role in cell differentiation and function. Mitochondrial ATP synthase coupling factor 6 (ATP5J) participates in various pathological processes, such as cell proliferation, migration, and inflammation. However, the role of ATP5J in microglial activation and neuroinflammation post-ICH is poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of ATP5J on microglial activation and subsequent neuroinflammation in ICH and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. We observed that ATP5J was upregulated in microglia after ICH. AAV9-mediated ATP5J overexpression worsened neurobehavioral deficits, disrupted the blood-brain barrier, and increased brain water content in ICH mice. Conversely, ATP5J knockdown ameliorated these effects. ATP5J overexpression also intensified microglial activation, neuronal apoptosis, and inflammatory responses in surrounding tissues post-ICH. ATP5J impaired microglial dynamics and reduced the proliferation and migration of microglia to injury sites. We used oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) to stimulate BV2 cells and model ICH in vitro. Further in vitro studies showed that ATP5J overexpression enhanced OxyHb-induced microglial functional transformation. Mechanistically, ATP5J silencing reversed dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) and mitochondrial fission 1 protein (Fis1) upregulation in microglia post-OxyHb induction; reduced mitochondrial overdivision, excessive mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, and reactive oxygen species production; restored normal mitochondrial ridge morphology; and partially restored mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chain activity. ATP5J silencing further alleviated OxyHb-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by regulating mitochondrial metabolism. Our results indicate that ATP5J is a key factor in regulating microglial functional transformation post-ICH by modulating mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolism, thereby positively regulate neuroinflammation. By inhibiting ATP5J, SBI following ICH could be prevented. Therefore, ATP5J could be a candidate for molecular and therapeutic target exploration to alleviate neuroinflammation post-ICH.

Interleukin-18 interacts with NKCC1 to mediate brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage

Interleukin 18 (IL-18), a proinflammatory cytokine, has been implicated in various neurological disorders, including cerebrovascular disease and psychiatric disorders. In a previous study, IL-18 was observed to activate microglia and enhance the inflammatory response following intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In the present study, we found that IL-18 and IL-18 receptor (IL-18 R) are primarily secreted by neurons during the early stages after ICH, with microglia becoming the predominant source at 12-24 h after ICH. Meanwhile, the expression level of IL-18 R increased following ICH, along with an augmentation in the binding affinity of IL-18 R to IL-18. Subsequently, the deficiency of IL-18 R mitigated neurological impairment and subsequent activation of inflammatory pathways in mice post-ICH. Moreover, our findings suggest that IL-18-induced neurological injury after ICH may be mediated by the interaction between IL18R and NKCC1. Significantly, the NKCC1 inhibitor rescued the neurologic injury after ICH. In conclusion, our study suggests that targeting the IL-18/IL-18R/NKCC1 pathway could be an effective therapeutic strategy to attenuate secondary brain injury after ICH.

Microglial mitochondrial DNA release contributes to neuroinflammation after intracerebral hemorrhage through activating AIM2 inflammasome

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a severe disease that often leads to disability and death. Neuroinflammatory response is a key causative factor of early secondary brain injury after ICH. AIM2 is a DNA-sensing protein that recognizes cytosolic double-stranded DNA and take a significant part in neuroinflammation. Mitochondrial DNA participates in the translation of proteins such as the respiratory chain in the mitochondria. Whether mtDNA is involved in forming AIM2 inflammasome after ICH remains unclear. We used mice to construct ICH model in vivo and we used BV2 microglial cells treated with oxyhemoglobin to simulate ICH in vitro. Following lentiviral transfection to overexpress AIM2 antagonist P202, a notable decrease was observed in the levels of AIM2 inflammasome-associated proteins, leading to a reduction in dead neurons surrounding the hematoma and an enhancement in long-term and short-term behavior of neurological deficits. We further explored whether mtDNA took part in the AIM2 activation after ICH. The cytosolic mtDNA level was down-regulated by the mitochondrial division protector Mdivi-1 and up-regulated by transfection of mtDNA into cytoplasm. We found the expression level of AIM2 inflammasome-related proteins and inflammatory cytokines release were regulated by the cytosolic mtDNA level. In conclusion, after ICH, the mtDNA content in the cytoplasm of microglia around the hematoma rises, causing AIM2 inflammation leading to neuronal apoptosis, which leads to neurological deficits in mice. On the other hand, P202 was able to block inflammatory vesicle activation and improve neurological function by preventing the interaction between AIM2 protein and mitochondrial DNA.

Unraveling the protein post-translational modification landscape: Neuroinflammation and neuronal death after stroke

The impact of stroke on global health is profound, with both high mortality and morbidity rates. This condition can result from cerebral ischemia, intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). The pathophysiology of stroke involves secondary damage and irreversible loss of neuronal function. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) have been recognized as crucial regulatory mechanisms in ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke-induced brain injury. These PTMs include phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, acetylation, and succinylation. This comprehensive review delves into recent research on the PTMs landscape associated with neuroinflammation and neuronal death specific to cerebral ischemia, ICH, and SAH. This review aims to explain the role of PTMs in regulating pathologic mechanisms and present critical techniques and proteomic strategies for identifying PTMs. This knowledge helps us comprehend the underlying mechanisms of stroke injury and repair processes, leading to the development of innovative treatment strategies. Importantly, this review underscores the significance of exploring PTMs to understand the pathophysiology of stroke.

Da-yuan-yin decoction alleviates ulcerative colitis by inhibiting complement activation, LPS-TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and NET formation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Da-yuan-yin decoction (DYY) is a classical traditional Chinese medicine prescription for ulcerative colitis (UC).

AIM OF STUDY

This study explored the protective effects and mechanisms of DYY on UC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mice were fed 2.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) for 7 days to establish UC. On the second day, DYY (0.4 g/kg, 0.8 g/kg, 1.6 g/kg) was orally administered daily for 7 consecutive days. The colon tissues and serum were measured by histopathological examination and biochemical analysis.

RESULTS

DYY significantly reduced the disease activity index (DAI) and severity of colon shortening and alleviated pathological changes in the colon tissue. DYY restored the protein expression of intestinal tight junction (TJ) protein (ZO-1, occludin and claudin-3). DYY remarkably decreased the level of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), Lactic acid (LA), circulating free DNA (cfDNA), complement (C3, C3a, C3c, C3aR1, C5a and C5aR1) and regulated the levels of inflammatory cytokines in serum. DYY significantly inhibited the expressions of nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κB p65) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), citrullinated histone H3 (CitH3) and myeloperoxidase (MPO), reactive oxygen species (ROS) peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) and CD 11b, the mRNA levels of PADI4, MPO and ELANE in colon tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

DYY significantly attenuated DSS-induced UC, which was related with regulating the inflammatory response by the inhibition of complement activation, the LPS-TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation. DYY is a potential therapeutic agent for UC.

Protective effects of flavonoids against intracerebral and subarachnoid hemorrhage (Review)

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), known as non-traumatic cerebrovascular rupture and hemorrhage, often occurs in the deep basal brain segment. It is known for its high morbidity and mortality rates. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a clinical syndrome caused by the rupture of blood vessels at the base or surface of the brain that allows blood to flow directly into the subarachnoid space. It progresses quickly and typically manifests at younger ages compared with ICH. ICH and SAH are both devastating events in the category of hemorrhagic strokes and are attracting increasing attention from researchers. Flavonoids, being important natural molecules, have remarkable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Flavonoids have extensive biological activities in inflammation and oxidative stress (OS), and have protective effects in vascular function associated with cerebrovascular diseases. They have an impact on the onset of ICH and SAH by targeting various pathways, including the suppression of inflammation and OS. Recently, the role of flavonoid compounds in ICH and SAH has also received increasing interest. Thus, to serve as a resource for the prevention and treatment of ICH and SAH, the present review provided an overview of the research on flavonoid compounds in the prevention of brain damage after these two conditions have occurred.

Effect of luteolin on oxidative stress and inflammation in the human osteoblast cell line hFOB1.19 in an inflammatory microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Periapical lesions are characterized by periapical inflammation and damage to periapical tissues and eventually lead to bone resorption and even tooth loss. H2O2 is widely used in root canal therapy for patients with periapical inflammation. Luteolin possesses high anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer potential. However, the underlying mechanism of the efficacy of H2O2 and luteolin on oxidative stress and inflammatory tissue has not been previously addressed. We aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects of luteolin on H2O2-induced cellular oxidative inflammation.

METHODS

After human osteoblasts (hFOB1.19) were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), luteolin, or H2O2, cell proliferation was analysed by using a cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), cell apoptosis was measured by using flow cytometry, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated by using an oxidation-sensitive probe DCFH-DA ROS assay kit, and the expression of genes and proteins was detected by using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‒qPCR), Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

We demonstrated that inflammation is closely related to oxidative stress and that the oxidative stress level in the inflammatory environment is increased. Luteolin inhibited the H2O2-induced increase in the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and significantly repressed the H2O2-induced increase in ROS, as well as markedly strengthened superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in hFOB1.19 cells. Moreover, we detected that luteolin may inhibit H2O2-induced hFOB1.19 cell injury by suppressing the NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

We elucidated that luteolin protected human osteoblasts (hFOB1.19) from H2O2-induced cell injury and inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines by suppressing the NF-κB signalling pathway. Our findings provide a potential drug for treating H2O2-induced periodontitis and cell injury.

TRAF6 promotes spinal microglial M1 polarization to aggravate neuropathic pain by activating the c-JUN/NF-kB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The neuropathic pain with complex networks of neuroinflammatory activation severely limits clinical therapeutic research. TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) is associated with multiple inflammatory diseases. However, there remains confusion about the effects and mechanisms of TRAF6 in neuropathic pain.

METHODS

A chronic constriction injury (CCI) model was developed to simulate neuralgia in vivo. We overexpressed or knocked down TRAF6 in CCI mice, respectively. Activation of microglia by TRAF6, the inflammatory response, and disease progression were inspected using WB, qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and ELISA assays. Moreover, the mechanism of M1/M2 polarization activation of microglia by TRAF6 was elaborated in BV-2 cells.

RESULTS

TRAF6 was enhanced in the spinal neurons and microglia of the CCI mice model compared with the sham operation group.. Down-regulation of TRAF6 rescued the expression of Iba-1. In response to mechanical and thermal stimulation, PWT and PWL were improved after the knockdown of TRAF6. Decreased levels of pro-inflammatory factors were observed in TRAF6 knockdown groups. Meanwhile, increased microglial M1 markers induced by CCI were limited in mice with TRAF6 knockdown. In addition, TRAF6 overexpression has the precise opposite effect on CCI mice or microglia polarization. We also identifed that TRAF6 activated the c-JUN/NF-kB pathway signaling; the inhibitor of c-JUN/NF-kB could effectively alleviate the neuropathic pain induced by upregulated TRAF6 in the CCI mice model.

CONCLUSION

In summary, this study indicated that TRAF6 was concerned with neuropathic pain, and targeting the TRAF6/c-JUN/NF-kB pathway may be a prospective target for treating neuropathic pain.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals novel hub genes associated with astrocyte autophagy in intracerebral hemorrhage

Introduction

Neuroinflammation serves as a critical local defense mechanism against secondary brain injury following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and astrocytes play a prominent role in this process. In this study, we investigated astrocytic changes during the inflammatory state after ICH to identify new targets for improving the inflammatory response.

Methods

We stimulated mouse astrocytes with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vitro and analyzed their transcriptomes via ribonucleic acid sequencing. We created an ICH model in living organisms by injecting autologous blood.

Results

RNA sequencing revealed that 2,717 genes were differentially expressed in the LPS group compared to those in the saline group, with notable enrichment of the autophagic pathway. By intersecting the 2,717 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with autophagy-related genes, we identified 36 autophagy-related DEGs and seven hub genes. Previous studies and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction results confirmed the increased expression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3 (Pik3c3), AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (Akt1), and unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 2 (Ulk2) in astrocytes after ICH. Transcription factors and target miRNAs were identified for the final three DEGs, and 3-methyladenine and leupeptin were identified as potential therapeutic agents for ICH.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that astrocyte autophagy plays a critical role in ICH complexity, and that Pik3c3, Akt1, and Ulk2 may be potential therapeutic targets.

Luteolin: A promising multifunctional natural flavonoid for human diseases

Natural products are closely associated with human health. Luteolin (LUT), a flavonoid polyphenolic compound, is widely found in fruits, vegetables, flowers, and herbs. It is noteworthy that LUT exhibits a variety of beneficial pharmacological properties and holds significant potential for clinical applications, particularly in antitumor, anti-convulsion, diabetes control, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection, anti-oxidation, anti-cardiovascular, and other aspects. The potential mechanism of action has been partially elucidated, including the mediation of NF-κB, toll-like receptor, MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, PI3K/Akt, AMPK/mTOR, and Nrf-2, among others. The review that aimed to comprehensively consolidate essential information on natural sources, pharmacological effects, therapeutic and preventive potential, as well as potential mechanisms of LUT. The objective is to establish a theoretical basis for the continued development and application of LUT.

Enzymatic synthesis of Vaccinium blue using vaccinoside as a bifunctional precursor

Since Tang dynasty in China, the fresh leaves of Vaccinium bracteatum (VBL) have been applied as natural pigment to produce black rice. However, detailed information on its biosynthetic mechanism still remained unclear. Following rice dyeing capacity assay, vaccinoside, one of iridoid glycosides, was identified as the key active compound. Increased methodical research demonstrated vaccinoside as a distinct bifunctional precursor, which could be catalyzed by polyphenol oxidase or β-glucosidase independently, followed by reaction with 15 amino acids to give blue pigments (VBPs; λmax 581-590 nm) of different hues. Two synthetic pathways of VBPs were proposed, using multiple techniques such as HPLC, HPSEC, UV-Vis spectrum and colorimeter as analysis tools. Black rice was interpreted to be prepared by cooking, using vaccinoside, intrinsic enzymes from fresh VBL and rice protein in combination. These findings promote the understanding of VBP formation mechanisms and provide an efficient method of producing novel Vaccinium blue pigments.

Celastrol Ameliorates Neuronal Mitochondrial Dysfunction Induced by Intracerebral Hemorrhage via Targeting cAMP-Activated Exchange Protein-1

Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to the development of secondary brain injury (SBI) following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and represents a promising therapeutic target. Celastrol, the primary active component of Tripterygium wilfordii, is a natural product that exhibits mitochondrial and neuronal protection in various cell types. This study aims to investigate the neuroprotective effects of celastrol against ICH-induced SBI and explore its underlying mechanisms. Celastrol improves neurobehavioral and cognitive abilities in mice with autologous blood-induced ICH, reduces neuronal death in vivo and in vitro, and promotes mitochondrial function recovery in neurons. Single-cell nuclear sequencing reveals that the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/cAMP-activated exchange protein-1 (EPAC-1) signaling pathways are impacted by celastrol. Celastrol binds to cNMP (a domain of EPAC-1) to inhibit its interaction with voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 1 (VDAC1) and blocks the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores. After neuron-specific knockout of EPAC1, the neuroprotective effects of celastrol are diminished. In summary, this study demonstrates that celastrol, through its interaction with EPAC-1, ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons, thus potentially improving SBI induced by ICH. These findings suggest that targeting EPAC-1 with celastrol can be a promising therapeutic approach for treating ICH-induced SBI.

Geniposide ameliorates brain injury in mice with intracerebral hemorrhage by inhibiting NF-κB signaling

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are critical players in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Geniposide is an active component of Gardenia that has anti-inflammatory effects. This study focused on the roles and mechanisms of geniposide in ICH.

METHODS

ICH was established by injecting collagenase IV into C57BL/6 mice. To determine the functions of geniposide and NF-κB inhibition in ICH model mice, geniposide (1, 25, or 50 mg/kg) or PDTC (a NF-κB inhibitor) was administered. Neurological functions were assessed with the modified neurological severity score (mNSS) test. Hematoxylin and eosin staining were performed to identify pathological changes. IL-1β and TNF-α levels were estimated with ELISA kits. NF-κB p65 localization was determined by immunofluorescence staining. Oxidative stress was analyzed by measuring ROS levels.

RESULTS

Geniposide alleviated cerebral edema and neurological deficits. Geniposide inhibited neuroinflammation and oxidative stress after ICH, and the inhibitory effects were enhanced by NF-κB inhibition. Additionally, geniposide inhibited NF-κB signaling.

CONCLUSION

Geniposide alleviates brain injury by suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress damage in experimental ICH models by inhibiting NF-κB signaling.

Wenyang-Tianjing-Jieyu Decoction Improves Depression Rats of Kidney Yang Deficiency Pattern by Regulating T Cell Homeostasis and Inflammation Level

PURPOSE

Chronic inflammation is one of the key mechanisms of depression. Wenyang-Tianjin-Jie Decoction (WTJD) is an effective antidepressant found in the course of diagnosis and treatment, but the mechanism of therapeutic effect is not clear. The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of WTJD in the kidney yang deficiency (KYD) type of depression rats and reveal its mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We selected forty 6-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats for the study. We established a KYD [Phellodendron amurense Rupr (Huangbai) solution oral gavage and 4°C environments; 8 weeks] type of depression (chronic unpredictable mild stimulus; 6 weeks) rat model first. After successful modeling, we used WTJD or fluoxetine on rats for 3 weeks. Then we evaluated the depression and KYD behavior. Finally, we observed the expression of key inflammatory factors and proteins in peripheral blood and hippocampus, and further investigated the immune balance of Th17/Treg and Th1/Th2 cells and the activity of their main regulatory pathways JAK2/STAT3 and TLR4/TRAF6/NF-κB.

RESULTS

The imbalance of Th17/Treg and Th1/Th2 cells in rats were related to KYD and depressive symptoms. Through this study, we found that WTJD can inhibit the activity of JAK2/STAT3 and TLR4/TRAF6/NF-κB pathways, balance Th17/Treg and Th1/Th2 cell homeostasis, regulate the levels of inflammatory factors in the hippocampus and peripheral blood, and reverse KYD and depression.

CONCLUSION

This study confirmed that WTJD had a reliable effect on depression rats with KYD, and its mechanism was to regulate the immune homeostasis of hippocampal T cells and related inflammatory factors to improve KYD and depression symptoms in rats.

Modulation of GPER1 alleviates early brain injury via inhibition of A1 reactive astrocytes activation after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice

Background

Early brain injury (EBI) caused by inflammatory responses in acute phase of Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) plays a vital role in the pathological progression of ICH. Increasing evidences demonstrate A1 reactive astrocytes are associated with the severity of EBI. G-protein coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER1) has been proved mediating the neuroprotective effects of estrogen in central nervous system (CNS) disease. However, whether GPER1 plays a protective effect on ICH and A1 reactive astrocytes activation is not well studied.

Methods

ICH model was established by infused the autologous whole blood into the right basal ganglia in wild type and GPER1 knockout mice. GPER1 specific agonist G1 and antagonist G15 were administered by intraperitoneal injection at 1 h or 0.5 h after ICH. Neurological function was detected on day 1 and day 3 by open field test and corner turn test following ICH. Besides, A1 reactive astrocytes were determined by immunofluorescence staining after ICH on day 3. To further identify the possible mechanism of GPER1 mediated neuroprotective effect, Western blot assays was performed after ICH on day 3.

Results

After ICH, G1 treatment alleviated mice neurobehavior deficits on day 1 and day 3. Meanwhile, G1 treatment also significantly reduced the GFAP positive astrocytes and the C3 positive cells after ICH. Interestingly, G15 reversed the protective effect of G1 on the neurobehavior of ICH mice. Meanwhile, the expression of GFAP+C3+ A1 reactive astrocytes were also reduced by activation of GPER1. Mechanistic studies indicated TLR4 and NF-κB mediated the neuroprotective effect of GPER1.

Conclusion

Generally, activation of GPER1 alleviated the EBI through inhibiting A1 reactive astrocytes activation via TLR4/NF-κB pathway after ICH in mice. Additionally, GPER1may be a promising target for ICH treatment.

Luteolin ameliorates pentetrazole-induced seizures through the inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Epilepsy represents a prevalent neurological disorder in the population, and the existing antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) often fail to adequately control seizures. Inflammation is recognized as a pivotal factor in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Luteolin, a natural flavonoid extract, possesses anti-inflammatory properties and exhibits promising neuroprotective activity. Nevertheless, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the antiepileptic effects of luteolin remain elusive. In this study, we established a rat model of epilepsy using pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) to induce seizures. A series of behavioral experiments were conducted to assess behavioral abilities and cognitive function. Histological techniques, including HE staining, Nissl staining, and TUNEL staining, were employed to assess hippocampal neuronal damage. Additionally, Western blotting, RT-qPCR, and ELISA were utilized to analyze the expression levels of proteins involved in the TLR4/IκBα/NF-κB signaling pathway, transcription levels of apoptotic factors, and levels of inflammatory cytokines, respectively. Luteolin exhibited a dose-dependent reduction in seizure severity, prolonged the latency period of seizures, and shortened seizure duration. Furthermore, luteolin prevented hippocampal neuronal damage in PTZ-induced epileptic rats and partially restored behavioral function and learning and memory abilities. Lastly, PTZ kindling activated the TLR4/IκBα/NF-κB pathway, leading to elevated levels of the cytokines TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β, which were attenuated by luteolin. Luteolin exerted anticonvulsant and neuroprotective activities in the PTZ-induced epileptic model. Its mechanism was associated with the inhibition of the TLR4/IκBα/NF-κB pathway, alleviating the immune-inflammatory response in the post-epileptic hippocampus.

The mechanism of Zhenzhu Pills treating intracerebral hemorrhage secondary injury based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

BACKGROUND

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) secondary injury is serious and affects patient's prognosis. The Zhenzhu Pills used to treat subacute ICH in Tibet has shown to have a certain curative effect. Network pharmacology and molecular docking technology are employed to explore the potential mechanism of Zhenzhu Pills. The components and potential targets of Zhenzhu Pills were screened from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database. The Gene Expression Omnibus Series 24265 was used to screen differentially expressed genes between perihematomal tissue and normal brain.

METHODS

The herbs-components-targets network was established, with weighted eigenvalue to identify the core components and targets of Zhenzhu Pills treatment of ICH secondary injury. Targets' bioinformatics enrichment was proceeded by gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome (KEGG) pathway analysis. Finally, molecular docking was used to identify the hydrogen bonding activity between the key components and action targets.

RESULTS

Five herbal drugs were screened from Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database, with a total of 48 components and 234 targets. The Gene Expression Omnibus Series 24265 dataset was evaluated and 920 differentially expressed genes were identified. A total of 29 intersection targets of Zhenzhu Pills were explored in the treatment of ICH secondary injury. Drugs-components-targets network analysis showed that the pivotal targets were prostaglandin G/H synthase 2, interleukin 6, heme oxygenase-1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, and the core components were quercetin, luteolin, and kaempferol. Gene ontology and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that biological processes such as cell chemotaxis, wound healing, leukocyte migration, and regulation of body fluid levels played an important role in the secondary injury of ICH. The results of KEGG pathway analysis were mainly related to advanced glycation end products-receptor for advanced glycation end products signal pathway and tumor necrosis factor signal pathway. Molecular docking of 3 flavonoids with 5 core targets with the results also showed active hydrogen bonding.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides insights into the potential mechanisms of Zhenzhu Pills in the treatment of secondary injuries resulting from ICH and highlights specific components, targets, and molecular pathways involved in this therapeutic effect. These possible therapeutic mechanisms include inhibiting inflammation, edema, oxidative stress, and so on.

Galectin-3 promotes brain injury by modulating the phenotype of microglia via binding TLR-4 after intracerebral hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a stroke subtype with high mortality and disability rate, and neuroinflammation is involved in secondary brain injury. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is one of the scaffold proteins of Galectins. Studies have indicated that Gal-3 plays an important role in the physiological and pathological state of the nervous system. Here we focus on the role of Gal-3 in ICH, especially in neuroinflammation.

METHODS

Injection of autologous blood into the right basal ganglia was used to simulate ICH injury, and the level of Gal-3 in brain was regulated by related means. The changes of Gal-3 were detected by western blot and immunofluorescence, the level of neuroinflammation by immunofluorescence staining and ELISA. Apoptosis and neuron loss were detected by TUNEL staining FJB staining and Nissl staining, and neurological deficits were judged by neurobehavioral tests.

RESULTS

The protein level of Gal-3 increased at 24 h after ICH. Downregulation of Gal-3 level can reduce the infiltration of M1-type microglia and peripheral inflammatory cells, thus alleviating post-ICH neuroinflammation, and reducing cell apoptosis and neuron loss in brain tissue. ICH-induced neurological damage was rescued. Meanwhile, the promotion in the expression level of Gal-3 increased neuroinflammatory activation and nerve cell death, aggravating ICH-induced brain injury.

CONCLUSIONS

This study proves that Gal-3 is involved in neuroinflammation and nerve damage after ICH. Gal-3 expression should not be encouraged early on to prevent neuroinflammation. which provides a new possibility for clinical treatment for ICH patients.

Stem cell therapy combined with luteolin alleviates experimental neuropathy

Neuropathic pain is a chronic condition that causes long-term burning sensations. Despite significant efforts, current treatments for neuropathic pain are ineffective in curing the condition, which means new therapeutic options must be developed. One such option is the use of stem cell therapy in combination with anti-inflammatory herbal components, which has shown promise in treating neuropathic pain. The study aimed to investigate the effects of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) with luteolin on sensory deficits and pathological changes in a neuropathic model. The results showed that luteolin, either alone or in combination with BM-MSCs, effectively reduced sensory deficits related to mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity. In addition, luteolin alone and combined with BM-MSCs reduced oxidative stress in neuropathic rats and inhibited cellular responses, particularly reactive astrocytes. The study concluded that combining luteolin and BM-MSCs may offer an effective therapeutic strategy for patients with neuropathic pain, although further research is needed.

Application Potential of Luteolin in the Treatment of Viral Pneumonia

Aim of the Review. This study aims to summarize the therapeutic effect of luteolin on the pathogenesis of viral pneumonia, explore its absorption and metabolism in the human body, evaluate the possibility of luteolin as a drug to treat viral pneumonia, and provide a reference for future research. Materials and Methods. We searched MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Google Scholar and collected research on luteolin in the treatment of viral pneumonia and related diseases since 2003. Then, we summarized the efficacy and potential of luteolin in directly inhibiting viral activity, limiting inflammatory storms, reducing pulmonary inflammation, and treating pneumonia complications. Results and Conclusion. Luteolin has the potential to treat viral pneumonia in multiple ways. Luteolin has a direct inhibitory effect on coronavirus, influenza virus, and respiratory syncytial virus. Luteolin can alleviate the inflammatory factor storm induced by multiple factors by inhibiting the function of macrophages or mast cells. Luteolin can reduce pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary edema, or pulmonary fibrosis induced by multiple factors. In addition, viral pneumonia may cause multisystem complications, while luteolin has extensive protective effects on the gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular system, and nervous system. However, due to the first-pass metabolism mediated by phase II enzymes, the bioavailability of oral luteolin is low. The bioavailability of luteolin can be improved, and its potential value can be further developed by changing the dosage form or route of administration.

Purpurogallin Reverses Neuronal Apoptosis and Enhances "M2" Polarization of Microglia Under Ischemia via Mediating the miR-124-3p/TRAF6/NF-κB Axis

Purpurogallin (PPG) has been demonstrated to exert an anti-inflammatory function in neurological diseases. This study aimed at investigating the role of PPG on microglial polarization post ischemic stroke as well as the underlying mechanism. Mouse hippocampal neurons HT-22 and microglial BV2 cells were treated by oxygen and glucose deprivation to simulate an in-vitro ischemia model. qRT-PCR and ELISA examined expression of cytokines in microglia. CCK8 and flow cytometry measured HT-22 cell viability and apoptosis, respectively. The levels of miR-124-3p and TRAF6/NF-κB were determined. A mouse cerebral ischemia model was set up using middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) method. After being dealt with PPG, the neurological functions, brain edema, neuronal apoptosis, and microglia activation of the mice were evaluated. As suggested by the results, PPG transformed "M1" to "M2" polarization of BV2 cells, and abated HT-22 cell apoptosis. PPG enhanced the neurological functions, alleviated brain edema, and decreased neuroinflammatory responses, and neuronal apoptosis in the brain lesions of MCAO mice. Furthermore, PPG enhanced miR-124-3p and repressed the TRAF6/NF-κB pathway. miR-124-3p suppressed the TRAF6/NF-κB pathway by targeting TRAF6. Collectively, PPG alleviates ischemia-induced neuronal damage and microglial inflammation by modulating the miR-124-3p/TRAF6/NF-κB pathway.

Potential Anti-Cholinesterase Activity of Bioactive Compounds Extracted from Cassia grandis L.f. and Cassia timoriensis DC

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors remain the primary therapeutic drug that can alleviate Alzheimer's disease's (AD) symptoms. Several Cassia species have been shown to exert significant anti-AChE activity, which can be an alternative remedy for AD. Cassia timoriensis and Cassia grandis are potential plants with anti-AChE activity, but their phytochemical investigation is yet to be further conducted. The aims of this study were to identify the phytoconstituents of C. timoriensis and C. grandis and evaluate their inhibitory activity against AChE and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). Two compounds were isolated for the first time from C. timoriensis: arachidyl arachidate (1) and luteolin (2). Five compounds were identified from C. grandis: β-sitosterol (3), stigmasterol (4), cinnamic acid (5), 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (6), and hydroxymethylfurfural (7). Compound 2 showed significant inhibition towards AChE (IC₅₀: 20.47 ± 1.10 µM) and BChE (IC₅₀: 46.15 ± 2.20 µM), followed by 5 (IC_50: 40.5 ± 1.28 and 373.1 ± 16.4 µM) and 6 (IC₅₀: 43.4 ± 0.61 and 409.17 ± 14.80 µM) against AChE and BChE, respectively. The other compounds exhibited poor to slightly moderate AChE inhibitory activity. Molecular docking revealed that 2 showed good binding affinity towards TcAChE (PDB ID: 1W6R) and HsBChE (PDB ID: 4BDS). It formed a hydrogen bond with TYR121 at the peripheral anionic site (PAS, 2.04 Å), along with hydrophobic interactions with the anionic site and PAS (TRP84 and TYR121, respectively). Additionally, 2 formed three H-bonds with the binding site residues: one bond with catalytic triad, HIS438 at distance 2.05 Å, and the other two H-bonds with GLY115 and GLU197 at distances of 2.74 Å and 2.19 Å, respectively. The evidence of molecular interactions of 2 may justify the relevance of C. timoriensis as a cholinesterase inhibitor, having more promising activity than C. grandis.

Zebrafish: A Model Deciphering the Impact of Flavonoids on Neurodegenerative Disorders

Over the past century, advances in biotechnology, biochemistry, and pharmacognosy have spotlighted flavonoids, polyphenolic secondary metabolites that have the ability to modulate many pathways involved in various biological mechanisms, including those involved in neuronal plasticity, learning, and memory. Moreover, flavonoids are known to impact the biological processes involved in developing neurodegenerative diseases, namely oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Thus, several flavonoids could be used as adjuvants to prevent and counteract neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Zebrafish is an interesting model organism that can offer new opportunities to study the beneficial effects of flavonoids on neurodegenerative diseases. Indeed, the high genome homology of 70% to humans, the brain organization largely similar to the human brain as well as the similar neuroanatomical and neurochemical processes, and the high neurogenic activity maintained in the adult brain makes zebrafish a valuable model for the study of human neurodegenerative diseases and deciphering the impact of flavonoids on those disorders.

Luteolin alleviates inflammation and autophagy of hippocampus induced by cerebral ischemia/reperfusion by activating PPAR gamma in rats

Background

Luteolin, a flavonoid compound with anti-inflammatory activity, has been reported to alleviate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, its potential mechanism remains unclear.

Methods

The binding activity of luteolin to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) was calculated via molecular docking analysis. Rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion (MCAO/R). After reperfusion, vehicle, 25 mg/kg/d luteolin, 50 mg/kg/d luteolin, 10 mg/kg/d pioglitazone, 50 mg/kg/d luteolin combined with 10 mg/kg/d T0070907 (PPARγ inhibitor) were immediately orally treatment for 7 days. ELISA, TTC staining, H&E staining, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscope methods were performed to evaluate the inflammation and autophagy in damaged hippocampal region. The PPARγ, light chain 3 (LC3) B-II/LC3B-I and p-nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 proteins expression levels in damaged hippocampal region were analyzed.

Results

Luteolin showed good PPARγ activity according to docking score (score = − 8.2). Luteolin treatment downregulated the infarct area and the pro-inflammatory cytokines levels caused by MCAO/R injury. Moreover, luteolin administration ameliorated neuroinflammation and autophagy in damaged hippocampal region. Pioglitazone plays protective roles similar to luteolin. T0070907 concealed the neuroprotective roles of 50 mg/kg/d luteolin.

Conclusions

Luteolin exerts neuroprotective roles against inflammation and autophagy of hippocampus induced by cerebral I/R by activating PPARγ in rats.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03652-8.

Mechanism of gene network in the treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage by natural plant drugs in Lutong granules

PURPOSE

To study the effects of Lu-tong Granules (LTG) in ICH etermine the underlying mechanism of molecular network.

METHODS

Modern bioinformatics and network pharmacology methods were used to predict molecular network mechanisms between ICH and LTG. Animal experiments were carried out to verify the effect of LTG for the treatment of ICH, combined with behavior test and morphologic detection.

RESULTS

Forty-three active components in LTG and involved 192 gene targets were identified successfully. Moreoner, they were intersected with 1132 genes of ICH,88 intersection targets were obtained. subsequently, Cytoscape was used to screen Hub genes, in which,6 core molecules, including AKT1, IL6, VEGFA, CASP3, JUN and MMP9 were recognized. Furthermore, we constructed Six core compounds by " disease-drug-active ingredient-target-KEGG " (D-D-A-T-K) network, showed including quercetin, luteolin, β sitosterol, stigmasterol, kaempferol and formononetin, and PPI protein network interaction showed that AKT1:OS3 and CNA2:DKN1A had the highest correlation. Whereas the enrichment of GO and KEGG indicated that LTG was most likely to play a therapeutic role in ICH through AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications. Integrated analysis also showed that the first 10 pathways of KEGG are integrated into 59 genes, among which 6 core genes are closely involved. Lastly, molecular docking showed that there was a good binding activity between the core components and the core genes, and animal experiments confirmed effect of LTG in the treatment of ICH, by using TTC staining and behavior test.

CONCLUSION

LTG are effective for the treatment of ICH, the underlying mechanism could be involved in gene network including anti-inflammatory response, nerve repair, analgesia, anti-epilepsy and other aspects.

Beneficial effects of natural flavonoids on neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation is the fundamental immune response against multiple factors in the central nervous system and is characterized by the production of inflammatory mediators, activated microglia and astrocytes, and the recruitment of innate and adaptive immune cells to inflammatory sites, that contributes to the pathological process of related brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, and stroke. Flavonoids, as a species of important natural compounds, have been widely revealed to alleviate neuroinflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, elevating the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors, and modulating the polarization of microglia and astrocyte, mainly via suppressing the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, as well as NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT pathways, promoting Nrf2, AMPK, BDNF/CREB, Wnt/β-Catenin, PI3k/Akt signals and SIRT1-mediated HMGB1 deacetylation. This review will provide the latest and comprehensive knowledge on the therapeutic benefits and mechanisms of natural flavonoids in neuroinflammation, and the natural flavonoids might be developed into food supplements or lead compounds for neuroinflammation-associated brain disorders.

TLR4-Pathway-Associated Biomarkers in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH): Potential Targets for Future Anti-Inflammatory Therapies

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is associated with severe neurological deficits for survivors. Among survivors of the initial bleeding, secondary brain injury leads to additional brain damage. Apart from cerebral vasospasm, secondary brain injury mainly results from cerebral inflammation taking place in the brain parenchyma after bleeding. The brain’s innate immune system is activated, which leads to disturbances in brain homeostasis, cleavage of inflammatory cytokines and, subsequently, neuronal cell death. The toll-like receptor (TLR)4 signaling pathway has been found to play an essential role in the pathophysiology of acute brain injuries such as subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). TLR4 is expressed on the cell surface of microglia, which are key players in the cellular immune responses of the brain. The participants in the signaling pathway, such as TLR4-pathway-like ligands, the receptor itself, and inflammatory cytokines, can act as biomarkers, serving as clues regarding the inflammatory status after SAH. Moreover, protein complexes such as the NLRP3 inflammasome or receptors such as TREM1 frame the TLR4 pathway and are indicative of inflammation. In this review, we focus on the activity of the TLR4 pathway and its contributors, which can act as biomarkers of neuroinflammation or even offer potential new treatment targets for secondary neuronal cell death after SAH.

MicroRNA-124 attenuates PTSD-like behaviors and reduces the level of inflammatory cytokines by downregulating the expression of TRAF6 in the hippocampus of rats following single-prolonged stress

BACKGROUND

MicroRNA-124-3p (miR-124) plays an important role in neuroprotective functions in various neurological disorders, but whether miR-124 participates in the pathological progression of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remains poorly understood.

METHODS

In the present study, we assessed the level of neuroinflammation in the hippocampus of rats exposed to single-prolonged stress (SPS) by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining, while the effect of miR-124 on PTSD-like behaviors was evaluated by behavioral test.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the level of miR-124 in the hippocampus of rats exposed to SPS was downregulated and that the upregulation of miR-124 could alleviate the PTSD-like behaviors of SPS rats. This effect of miR-124 might be achieved through TNF receptor-associated Factor 6 (TRAF6), which is a target gene of miR-124 and plays an important role in the immune and inflammatory reaction by regulating nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB). Furthermore, we found that miR-124 not only decreased the level of proinflammatory cytokines but also increased the expression levels of synaptic proteins (PSD95 and synapsin I) and regulated the morphology of neurons.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that miR-124 might attenuate PTSD-like behaviors and decrease the level of proinflammatory cytokines by downregulating the expression of TRAF6 in the hippocampus of rats exposed to SPS.

Luteolin suppresses TNF‑α‑induced inflammatory injury and senescence of nucleus pulposus cells via the Sirt6/NF‑κB pathway

Luteolin (3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxy flavone) is a flavonoid, which is widely distributed in various plants including flowers, vegetables, and medicinal herbs and spices. Luteolin can be applied in the treatment of various diseases due to its multiple biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antioxidative activity. However, its role in intervertebral disc degeneration has not been previously reported. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to explore the effects of luteolin on Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced inflammatory injury and senescence of human nucleus pulposus cells (HNPCs), as well as the underlying mechanisms of action of this compound. Cell viability and apoptosis were assessed by MTT assay and TUNEL staining, respectively. ELISA kits were applied to detect the levels of inflammatory cytokines and the activity of telomerase. Senescence β-galactosidase staining was used to detect the activity levels of β-galactosidase in the cells. Cell transfection was performed to achieve interference of sirtuin 6 (Sirt6). The protein expression levels were detected by western blot analysis. TUNEL staining and western blot analysis were performed to assess the expression levels of apoptosis-related proteins. The results indicated that TNF-α induced a significant decrease in HNPC viability and an increase in inflammatory factor levels, while the application of luteolin effectively increased cell viability and decreased intracellular interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 expression levels. Furthermore, luteolin decreased apoptosis compared with the TNF-α groups in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the results of the detection kits suggested that luteolin reversed TNF-α-induced senescence. Notably, interference with Sirt6 partially reduced the protective effect of luteolin on TNF-α-induced HNPC senescence via the Sirt6/NF-κB pathway. In summary, the data indicated that luteolin suppresses TNF-α-induced inflammatory injury and senescence of HNPCs via the Sirt6/NF-κB pathway.

KappaBle fluorescent reporter mice enable low-background single-cell detection of NF-κB transcriptional activity in vivo

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a transcription factor with a key role in a great variety of cellular processes from embryonic development to immunity, the outcome of which depends on the fine-tuning of NF-κB activity. The development of sensitive and faithful reporter systems to accurately monitor the activation status of this transcription factor is therefore desirable. To address this need, over the years a number of different approaches have been used to generate NF-κB reporter mice, which can be broadly subdivided into bioluminescence- and fluorescence-based systems. While the former enables whole-body visualization of the activation status of NF-κB, the latter have the potential to allow the analysis of NF-κB activity at single-cell level. However, fluorescence-based reporters frequently show poor sensitivity and excessive background or are incompatible with high-throughput flow cytometric analysis. In this work we describe the generation and analysis of ROSA26 knock-in NF-κB reporter (KappaBle) mice containing a destabilized EGFP, which showed sensitive, dynamic, and faithful monitoring of NF-κB transcriptional activity at the single-cell level of various cell types during inflammatory and infectious diseases.

The natural (poly)phenols as modulators of microglia polarization via TLR4/NF-κB pathway exert anti-inflammatory activity in ischemic stroke

Increasing evidences suggest that inflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of stroke, a devastating disease second only to cardiac ischemia as a cause of death worldwide. Microglia are the first non-neuronal cells on the scene during the innate immune response to acute ischemic stroke. Microglia respond to acute brain injury by activating and developing classic M1-like (pro-inflammatory) or alternative M2-like (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes. M1 microglia produce pro-inflammatory cytokines to exacerbate neural death, astrocyte apoptosis, and blood brain barrier (BBB) disruption, while M2 microglia play the opposite role. NF-κB, a central regulator of the inflammatory response, was responsible for microglia M1 and M2 polarization. NF-κB p65 and p50 form a heterodimer to initiate a pro-inflammatory cytokine response, which enhances M1 activation and impair M2 response of microglia. TLR4, expressed on the surface of microglia, plays an important role in activating NF-κB, ultimately causing the M1 response of microglia. Therefore, modulation of microglial phenotypes via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway may be a promising therapeutic approach for ischemic stroke. Dietary (poly)phenols are present in various foods, which have shown promising protective effects on ischemic stroke. In vivo studies strongly suggest that many (poly)phenols have a pronounced impact on ischemic stroke, as demonstrated by lower neuroinflammation. Thus, this review focuses on the anti-inflammatory properties of dietary (poly)phenols and discusses their effects on the polarization of microglia through modulating TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in the ischemic stroke.

Lamiaceae in Mexican Species, a Great but Scarcely Explored Source of Secondary Metabolites with Potential Pharmacological Effects in Pain Relief

The search for molecules that contribute to the relief of pain is a field of research in constant development. Lamiaceae is one of the most recognized families world-wide for its use in traditional medicine to treat diseases that include pain and inflammation. Mexico can be considered one of the most important centers of diversification, and due to the high endemism of this family, it is crucial for the in situ conservation of this family. Information about the most common genera and species found in this country and their uses in folk medicine are scarcely reported in the literature. After an extensive inspection in bibliographic databases, mainly Sciencedirect, Pubmed and Springer, almost 1200 articles describing aspects of Lamiaceae were found; however, 217 articles were selected because they recognize the Mexican genera and species with antinociceptive and/or anti-inflammatory potential to relieve pain, such as Salvia and Agastache. The bioactive constituents of these genera were mainly terpenes (volatile and non-volatile) and phenolic compounds such as flavonoids (glycosides and aglycone). The aim of this review is to analyze important aspects of Mexican genera of Lamiaceae, scarcely explored as a potential source of secondary metabolites responsible for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of these species. In addition, we point out the possible mechanisms of action involved and the modulatory pathways investigated in different experimental models. As a result of this review, it is important to mention that scarce information has been reported regarding species of this family from Mexican genera. In fact, despite Calosphace being one of the largest subgenera of Salvia in the world, found mainly in Mexico, it has been barely investigated regarding its potential biological activities and recognized bioactive constituents. The scientific evidence regarding the different bioactive constituents found in species of Lamiaceae demonstrates that several species require further investigation in preclinical studies, and of course also in controlled clinical trials evaluating the efficacy and safety of these natural products to support their therapeutic potential in pain relief and/or inflammation, among other health conditions. Since Mexico is one of the most important centers of diversification, and due to the high endemism of species of this family, it is crucial their rescue, in situ conservation, and investigation of their health benefits.

To explore the Radix Paeoniae Rubra-Flos Carthami herb pair's potential mechanism in the treatment of ischemic stroke by network pharmacology and molecular docking technology

To explore the Radix Paeoniae Rubra-Flos Carthami herb pair's (RPR-FC) potential mechanism in treating ischemic stroke (IS) by network pharmacology and molecular docking technology.The Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database was used to screen the active components of the RPR-FC, and Cytoscape 3.8 software was used to construct a network map of its active components and targets of action. The GeneCards and OMIM databases were used to identify disease targets of IS, and the common targets were chosen as research targets and imported into the STRING database to construct a protein-protein interaction network map of these targets. R language software was used to analyze the enrichment of GO terms and KEGG pathways, and explore the mechanisms of these targets. Molecular docking technology was used to verify that the RPR-FC components had a good bonding activity with their potential targets.A total of 44 active components, which corresponded to 197 targets, were identified in the RPR-FC. There were 139 common targets between the herb pair and IS. GO functional enrichment analysis revealed 2253 biological process entries, 72 cellular components entries, and 183 molecular functions entries. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis was mainly related to the NF-kappa B signaling pathway, the TNF signaling pathway, apoptosis, the MAPK signaling pathway, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, the VEGF signaling pathway, etc. The molecular docking results showed the components that docked well with key targets were quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, and baicalein.The active components (quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, and baicalein) of the RPR-FC and their targets act on proteins such as MAPK1, AKT1, VEGFA, and CASP3, which are closely related to IS.1 These targets are closely related to the NF-kappa B signaling pathway, the MAPK signaling pathway, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, the VEGF signaling pathway, and other signaling pathways. These pathways are involved in the recovery of nerve function, angiogenesis, and neuronal apoptosis and the regulation of inflammatory factors, which may have a therapeutic effect on IS.

Luteolin Suppresses Microglia Neuroinflammatory Responses and Relieves Inflammation-Induced Cognitive Impairments

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in response to injurious self and non-self-stimuli exerts detrimental effects on neurons, which may lead to cognitive impairment. Luteolin, a typical kind of natural flavonoid in honeysuckle, chrysanthemum, and Herba Schizonepetae, is widely recognized to be anti-inflammatory and antioxidant against peripheral inflammation. However, its protective effect against inflammation-induced cognitive impairment is currently unknown. In this paper, we investigated the relief potential of luteolin against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cognitive impairment and neuroinflammation and its possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV2 microglia cells. In this study, luteolin ameliorated LPS-induced cognitive impairments, indicated by behavioral performance of neuroinflammatory model mice in Morris water maze tests. Protein analyses and histological examination also revealed protective effect of luteolin against neuronal damage, through inhibiting overproduction of inflammatory cytokines in both hippocampus and cortex of mice. We also observed luteolin in vitro significantly suppressed the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 β (IL-1β), and inflammatory mediators like nitric oxide. Taken together, these results demonstrated luteolin was effective in alleviating cognitive impairment and limited neuronal damage via inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators, suggesting luteolin is potential for further therapeutic research of neuroinflammation-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Paving Luteolin Therapeutic Potentialities and Agro-Food-Pharma Applications: Emphasis on In Vivo Pharmacological Effects and Bioavailability Traits

Luteolin is a naturally occurring secondary metabolite belonging to the class of flavones. As many other natural flavonoids, it is often found in combination with glycosides in many fruits, vegetables, and plants, contributing to their biological and pharmacological value. Many preclinical studies report that luteolin present excellent antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory effects, and as a consequence, various clinical trials have been designed to investigate the therapeutic potential of luteolin in humans. However, luteolin has a very limited bioavailability, which consequently affects its biological properties and efficacy. Several drug delivery strategies have been developed to raise its bioavailability, with nanoformulations and lipid carriers, such as liposomes, being the most intensively explored. Pharmacological potential of luteolin in various disorders has also been underlined, but to some of them, the exact mechanism is still poorly understood. Given the great potential of this natural antioxidant in health, this review is aimed at providing an extensive overview on the in vivo pharmacological action of luteolin and at stressing the main features related to its bioavailability, absorption, and metabolism, while essential steps determine its absolute health benefits and safety profiles. In addition, despite the scarcity of studies on luteolin bioavailability, the different drug delivery formulations developed to increase its bioavailability are also listed here.

Potential Role of Soluble Toll-like Receptors 2 and 4 as Therapeutic Agents in Stroke and Brain Hemorrhage

Hemolysis is a physiological condition in which red blood cells (RBCs) lyse, releasing their contents into the extracellular environment. Hemolysis can be a manifestation of several diseases and conditions, such as sickle cell disease, hemorrhagic stroke, and trauma. Heme and hemoglobin are among the unique contents of RBCs that are released into the environment. Although these contents can cause oxidative stress, especially when oxidized in the extracellular environment, they can also initiate a proinflammatory response because they bind to receptors such as the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. This review seeks to clarify the mechanism by which TLRs initiate a proinflammatory response to heme, hemoglobin, and their oxidized derivatives, as well as the possibility of using soluble TLRs (sTLRs) as therapeutic agents. Furthermore, this review explores the possibility of using sTLRs in hemorrhagic disorders in which mitigating inflammation is essential for clinical outcomes, including hemorrhagic stroke and its subtypes, intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH).

The role of dorsal root ganglia alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in complete Freund's adjuvant-induced chronic inflammatory pain

BACKGROUND

Alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) was reported to have a critical role in the regulation of pain sensitivity and neuroinflammation. However, the expression level of α7 nAChR in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and the underlying neuroinflammatory mechanisms associated with hyperalgesia are still unknown.

METHODS

In the present study, the expression and mechanism of α7 nAChR in chronic inflammatory pain was investigated using a complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced chronic inflammatory pain model. Subsequently, a series of assays including immunohistochemistry, western blotting, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) were performed.

RESULTS

α7 nAChR was mostly colocalized with NeuN in DRG and upregulated after CFA injection. Microinjection of α7 nAChR siRNA into ipsilateral L4/5 DRGs aggravated the CFA-induced pain hypersensitivity. Intrathecal α7 nAChR agonist GTS-21 attenuated the development of CFA-induced mechanical and temperature-related pain hypersensitivities. In neuronal the SH-SY5Y cell line, the knockdown of α7 nAChRs triggered the upregulation of TRAF6 and NF-κB under CFA-induced inflammatory conditions, while agitation of α7 nAChR suppressed the TRAF6/NF-κB activation. α7 nAChR siRNA also exacerbated the secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators from LPS-induced SH-SY5Y cells. Conversely, α7 nAChR-specific agonist GTS-21 diminished the release of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) in SH-SY5Y cells under inflammatory conditions. Mechanistically, the modulation of pain sensitivity and neuroinflammatory action of α7 nAChR may be mediated by the TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that α7 nAChR may be potentially utilized as a therapeutic target for therapeutics of chronic inflammatory pain.

Dehydrocorydaline Protects Against Sepsis-Induced Myocardial Injury Through Modulating the TRAF6/NF-κB Pathway

We aim to investigate the effect and mechanism of dehydrocorydaline (Deh), an alkaloidal component isolated from Rhizoma corydalis, in the treatment of sepsis-mediated myocardial injury. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was taken to construct an in-vitro sepsis-myocardial injury models H9C2 cardiomyocytes. The in-vivo model of sepsis in C57BL/6 mice was induced by intraperitoneal injection of Escherichia coli (E. coli). The in-vitro and in-vivo models were treated with Deh in different concentrations, respectively. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, Masson staining, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining were taken to evaluate the histopathological changes of the heart. ELISA was applied to evaluate the levels of inflammatory factors, including IL-6, IL-1β, TNFα, IFNγ, and oxidized factors SOD, GSH-PX in the plasma or culture medium. Western blot was used to measure the expressions of Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3, iNOS, Nrf2, HO-1, TRAF6, NF-κB in heart tissues and cells. The viability of H9C2 cardiomyocytes was detected by the CCK8 method and BrdU assay. The ROS level in the H9C2 cardiomyocytes were determined using immunofluorescence. As a result, Deh treatment improved the survival of sepsis mice, reduced TUNEL-labeled apoptosis of cardiomyocytes. In vitro, Deh enhanced the viability of LPS-induced H9C2 cardiomyocytes and inhibited cell apoptosis. Additionally, Deh showed significant anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress functions via decreasing IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and IFNγ levels, mitigating ROS level, up-regulating Nrf2/HO-1, SOD, and GSH-PX expressions dose-dependently. Mechanistically, Deh inhibited TRAF6 expression and the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65. The intervention with a specific inhibitor of TRAF6 (C25-140) or NF-κB inhibitor (BAY 11-7082) markedly repressed the protective effects mediated by Deh. In conclusion, Deh restrains sepsis-induced cardiomyocyte injury by inhibiting the TRAF6/NF-κB pathway.

miR-124-3p Inhibits Microglial Secondary Inflammation After Basal Ganglia Hemorrhage by Targeting TRAF6 and Repressing the Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome

Objectives: Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) represents a serious central nervous system emergency with high morbidity and mortality, and the basal ganglia is the most commonly affected brain region. Differentially expressed microRNAs (miRs) have recently been highlighted to serve as potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for ICH. This study investigated the mechanism of miR-124-3p in microglial secondary inflammation after ICH.

Methods: In this study, 48 patients with primary basal ganglia ICH and 48 healthy volunteers were selected and venous blood was collected from all patients on the second morning of admission (within 24 h of stroke onset). The expression of miR-124-3p in serum was detected by RT-qPCR. Three months after ICH, the patients were assessed by modified Rankin Scale (mRS), and the correlation between miR-124-3p expression and mRS score was analyzed by Pearson. The inflammatory response of microglia was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to establish the cell model of microglial inflammation. miR-124-3p expression patterns were detected in the serum of ICH patients and healthy volunteers, normal microglia, and LPS-induced microglia. The miR-124-3p mimic was transfected into LPS-induced microglia, followed by measurement of the inflammatory factors, apoptosis rate, and cell viability. The target gene of miR-124-3p was predicted and verified. The expression patterns of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) were detected. pcDNA3.1 and pcDNA3.1-TRAF6 were transfected into LPS-induced HMC3 cells, and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLR) pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) expression patterns were determined. Lastly, the effects of TRAF6 overexpression on apoptosis, cell viability, and inflammation in HMC3 cells were measured.

Results: miR-124-3p was downregulated in the serum of basal ganglia ICH patients and LPS-induced microglia, and miR-124-3p expression was negatively correlated with mRS. Overexpression of miR-124-3p reduced the inflammatory factors and apoptosis rate and promoted cell activity in LPS-induced microglia. miR-124-3p was found to target TRAF6. Overexpression of TRAF6 enhanced the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome, inflammatory factors and apoptosis rate, and reduced cell viability.

Conclusion: Our findings indicate that miR-124-3p repressed the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by targeting TRAF6, thus inhibiting microglial secondary inflammation after ICH in basal ganglia.

Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Pathways: Novel Therapeutic Targets for Cerebrovascular Disorders

Toll-like receptors (TLRs), a class of pattern recognition proteins, play an integral role in the modulation of systemic inflammatory responses. Cerebrovascular diseases (CVDs) are a group of pathological conditions that temporarily or permanently affect the brain tissue mostly via the decrease of oxygen and glucose supply. TLRs have a critical role in the activation of inflammatory cascades following hypoxic-ischemic events and subsequently contribute to neuroprotective or detrimental effects of CVD-induced neuroinflammation. The TLR signaling pathway and downstream cascades trigger immune responses via the production and release of various inflammatory mediators. The present review describes the modulatory role of the TLR signaling pathway in the inflammatory responses developed following various CVDs and discusses the potential benefits of the modulation of different TLRs in the improvement of functional outcomes after brain ischemia.

A Network Pharmacology-Based Analysis of the Protective Mechanism of Miao Medicine Xuemaitong Capsule Against Secondary Brain Damage in the Ischemic Area Surrounding Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating disease with the high mortality. The poor outcome of ICH is partially due to a combination of various secondary insults, including in the ischemic area. Xuemaitong capsule (XMT), a kind of traditional Chinese medicine, has been applied to clinic practice. The purpose of this study is to explore the mechanism of XMT in alleviating secondary damage in the ischemic area after ICH. We screened XMT target, compound components, and ICH-related targets using network pharmacology, cluster analysis, and enrichment analysis. We found that the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway might be the key signaling pathway for XMT treatment of ICH. An ICH rat model was established, as demonstrated by poor neurologic score. In the ICH rats, Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence indicated the upregulated expression of TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and caspase-3 (CASP3). Importantly, administration of XMT alleviated inflammation, edema, and increased perfusion in the ischemic area, whereas the expression of TNFR1, MAPK, NF-κB, and CASP3 was decreased. Furthermore, Fluoro-Jade B and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated digoxigenin-deoxyuridine nick-end labeling staining revealed that XMT application also inhibited apoptosis and degradation of ischemic area neurons. In conclusion, this evidence elucidates that XMT alleviates neuron apoptosis, ischemic area inflammation, edema, and perfusion through the TNFR1-mediated CASP3/NF-κB/MAPK axis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is the key signaling pathway of Xuemaitong (XMT) to intervention during intracerebral hemorrhage. Fourteen key targets [intercellular adhesion molecule 1, interleukin (IL) 6, TNF, C-C motif chemokine ligand 2, prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2, v-rel reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A, matrix metalloproteinase 9, endothelin-1 (EDN1), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 1, fos proto-oncogene protein, caspase-3 (CASP3), jun proto-oncogene, IL1B, MAPK8] are retrieved from the data base. XMT can inhibit neuron apoptosis in the ischemic area via regulating TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1)/CASP3. XMT alleviates inflammation and edema through regulating TNFR1/nuclear factor-κB and TNFR1/MAPK signaling pathways. XMT alleviates hypoperfusion in the cerebral ischemic area through mediating TNFR1/MAPK/EDN1.

Luteolin attenuates Fipronil-induced neurotoxicity through reduction of the ROS-mediated oxidative stress in rat brain mitochondria

Luteolin (LUT) as a natural compound found in vegetables and fruits has various pharmacological effects. Fipronil (FPN), as a pesticide, has been considered for its effect on the antioxidant system and induction of oxidative stress. This study was designed to investigate the protective effects of LUT against the oxidative stress and mitochondrial toxicity induced by FPN on the rat brain. Several parameters such as mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse, mitochondrial swelling, cytochrome c release, mitochondrial glutathione (GSH), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels were assessed. Results indicated that the administration of LUT (25 μM) significantly improved oxidative stress and mitochondrial damages induced via FPN (6, 12 and 24 μM) in isolated mitochondria from the brain. These results show that LUT exerted protective effects against FPN-induced neurotoxicity in vitro through improving oxidative stress and mitochondrial damages.