Overcoming drug delivery barriers and challenges in topical therapy of atopic dermatitis: A nanotechnological perspective

Network pharmacology and molecular docking approach to predict the oral and topical therapeutic mechanisms of Panax ginseng's active compounds on atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a recurrent inflammatory skin condition marked by itching, inflammation, and lichenification, primarily affecting children. Panax ginseng shows therapeutic promise in treating AD, although research on its mechanisms remains limited. For the first time, a network pharmacology approach was used to explore the pharmacological mechanisms of Panax ginseng's active compounds in AD treatment. Screening for bioactive compounds and their respective targets was conducted through the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) and SwissTargetPrediction databases. AD-related targets were gathered from GeneCards, DisGeNET, and OMIM databases. The VENNY tool was used to identify overlapping targets. STRING 12.0 was utilized for protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, Cytoscape for network construction, DAVID for Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment, and PyRx AutoDock Vina for molecular docking. We retrieved 14 bioactive compounds (oral bioavailability ≥ 30% and drug-likeness ≥ 0.18) from Panax ginseng, corresponding to 552 targets, and 44 compounds (OB < 30% and DL ≥ 0.18) with 610 potential targets for oral and topical AD therapies. In the compound-target network, Gomisin B, Kaempferol, Celabenzine, and Panaxadiol emerged as key oral compounds targeting hub genes. Ginsenoside-Rh3, 12-O-nicotinoylisolineolone, Ginsenoside-Rh4, and Panaxatriol were linked to hub genes, suggesting topical application potential. GO and KEGG enrichment showed involvement of Th17 cell differentiation, EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, C-type lectin receptor signaling, and TNF signaling. Molecular docking showed strong binding between key compounds and core targets. This study highlights Panax ginseng's potential in complementary AD treatment.

Can breakthroughs in dermal and transdermal macromolecule delivery surmount existing barriers and revolutionize future therapeutics?

The delivery of macromolecules through dermal and transdermal routes presents both significant challenges and transformative opportunities in therapeutic applications. This review highlights the most recent advancements and innovative strategies aimed at overcoming the barriers associated with macromolecular delivery. Cutting-edge approaches such as the use of adjuvants (e.g., hyaluronic acid-based and chemical penetration enhancers), bioactive peptides with diverse functionalities, and mechanical force techniques-including iontophoresis, microneedles, and electroporation-are thoroughly explored. While various strategies have been implemented to enhance skin delivery, they often present significant challenges, particularly for macromolecules. Addressing these challenges requires integrating novel technologies and understanding the interplay between biological barriers and delivery mechanisms. Furthermore, the role of nanotechnology, through systems like nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, and transferosomes, is examined for its ability to protect macromolecules and regulate their release. Notably, this review provides unique perspectives on the interplay between these strategies and their potential to revolutionise future therapeutics. By highlighting key trends and advancements in macromolecule delivery, this review underscores the importance of innovative approaches in overcoming existing barriers and enabling efficient drug administration.

Mechanical and rheological properties of Pluronic F127 based-hydrogels loaded with chitosan grafted with hyaluronic acid and propolis, focused to atopic dermatitis treatment

Hydrogels for biomedical applications have been widely studied once they are able to enhance the wound-healing process, as well as facilitate the controlled release and loading of drugs. In this context, Pluronic F127 (PF127) has a major role as it was shown to have exceptional versatility, once it holds unique gelation properties, as it is thermoreversible and is liquid in lower temperatures, and changes to gel in higher temperatures. Moreover, the gelation behavior of PF127 is influenced by its concentration and can be further modulated by incorporating different compounds, including drugs. In this study, the mechanical and rheological properties of Pluronic F127-based hydrogels were evaluated to be further used as a treatment for atopic dermatitis (AD). To this purpose, it was conducted Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), rheology, adhesivity, cohesion, and compression assays, allowed us to understand the effects of different concentrations of PF127 and how it behaves after incorporating compounds (chitosan grafted with hyaluronic acid (Ch/HA), and propolis), aiming to identify optimal combinations for the hydrogel formulation. To provide a reliable formulation, the study first selected the most suitable concentration of PF127, in the sequence it incorporated Ch/HA and lastly, propolis was added. The findings have provided valuable insights regarding the selection of the formulations, correlating the mechanical, rheological, and morphological data. It is expected that the formulation achieved is able to further be applied to the wounded skin, providing a low-cost and effective alternative to the treatment of AD.

Enhanced rivastigmine delivery through nanoemulsion and pyridoxine supplementation: An in-vivo study on Alzheimer's disease intervention

Nanoemulsions are nanostructured material and stabilized colloidal in nature evolved as a highly desirable mechanism for the delivery of drugs. Our objective of the study deals with a successful Rivastigmine (RSG) loaded nanoemulsion which can effectively progress the treatment of AD patients. We developed nanoemulsion containing RSG by combining pyridoxine, an essential vitamin supplement for central nervous system development, with linseed oil, which functioned as the lipophilic phase in the nanoemulsion formulation. The optimal formulation having globular size of 202.3 nm was further evaluated by various analytical techniques, including zeta potential analysis, ATR, DSC, and XRD study. The study utilized the Morris Water Maze (MWM) model to assess the cognitive abilities of Long-Evans rats. The current investigation establishes that the utilization of RSG nanoemulsion incorporating blend of linseed oil and pyridoxine which reduced travel distance in animal mode and can be successfully contribute to therapeutic advancements in patients with AD.

Selected traditional Chinese herbal medicines for the treatment of atopic dermatitis - research progress on the effect and mechanism of actions

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common chronic, recurrent, inflammatory skin disease characterized by pruritus, lichen-like changes and dry skin. Due to the complex pathogenesis of AD, its mechanism is primarily associated with genetic, skin barrier dysfunction, environmental, and immune factors. AD has been routinely treated with glucocorticoids, antihistamines, local immunomodulators, biological agents, and small molecules; however, the side effects are significant, and the treatment efficacy is limited. In recent years, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gradually been widely used in the treatment of AD. Many studies have shown that TCM mainly regulates inflammatory cytokines, gut microbiota and the immune system. Therefore, it plays a crucial role in the treatment of AD. The treatment of atopic dermatitis using TCM is characterized by targeting multiple pathways and multiple targets, and it demonstrates significant therapeutic effects. This paper reviews the pathogenesis of AD and reports the efficacy of TCM on AD (including TCM prescription, single TCM, treatment of TCM metabolites), which provides a theoretical basis for TCM treatment of AD. TCM has certain therapeutic effects on AD. It can alleviate and treat AD in various ways. We should base our differentiation on syndrome differentiation and treatment differentiation. With the help of modern medicine, the clinical efficacy of TCM in treating AD can be improved.

N-Heterocyclic functionalized chalcone derivatives as anti-inflammatory agents for atopic dermatitis treatment by inhibiting JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is difficult to cure as a chronic inflammatory skin disease. In the present study, a series of N-heterocyclic functionalized chalcone derivatives have been prepared to investigate their in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities. The results indicated that many derivatives could effectively inhibit NO generation with low toxicity. In vivo studies revealed that 4f could improve the skin condition of AD-like mice, reduce inflammatory infiltration, inhibit the expressions of p-JAK1/JAK1 and p-STAT3/STAT3, and mitigate the excessive immune response on MC903-induced AD-like mice. The molecular docking study indicated that 4f had an obvious binding site with the target 4ehz and 6QHD. Therefore, these derivatives may be considered as potent agents for AD treatment by inhibiting JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Tofacitinib in focus: Fascinating voyage from conventional formulations to novel delivery systems

Tofacitinib, a Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, has emerged as a primary therapeutic agent for managing autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, dermatitis and ulcerative colitis. By inhibiting the phosphorylation of JAK enzymes, tofacitinib prevents their activation within the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, which is vital for inflammatory responses. However, the tofacitinib delivery presents significant challenges, including pH-dependent solubility, poor permeability and susceptibility to oral degradation. This review provides an in-depth analysis of current and emerging formulations to enhance the delivery and efficiency of tofacitinib. This review highlights the physicochemical, pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of tofacitinib. Additionally, it discusses various strategies, including oral modified release formulations, topical/transdermal delivery utilizing lipid-based and polymeric systems, and parenteral delivery systems. Recent advancements in nanotechnology, such as liposomes, micelles, keratinocyte exosomes, proposomes, proglycosomes, transethosomes, squalenyl nanoparticles and lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles, are explored as potential nanocarriers to existing delivery constraints. The development of advanced tofacitinib delivery systems can address the challenges in its delivery and improve therapeutic outcomes and patient compliance, paving the way for enhanced treatment strategies in autoimmune and inflammatory conditions.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Cannabigerol In Vitro and In Vivo Are Mediated Through the JAK/STAT/NFκB Signaling Pathway

Cannabinoid compounds have potential as treatments for a variety of conditions, with cannabigerol (CBG) being known for its anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we investigated the effects of CBG in a cellular model of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD). In the cellular model, we confirmed the cytotoxicity of CBG and downregulated the expression of inflammatory markers CCL26, IL1B, IL6, and TNF (p < 0.001). In the mouse model, clinical, histological, and immunological changes were analyzed. The results showed that CBG improved dermatitis severity score, epidermal thickness, and mast cell count and reduced inflammatory cytokines (Tslp, Il1b, Il4, Il6, Il13, Il17, Il18, Il22, and Il33) by qRT-PCR (p < 0.001). Western blot results showed modulated changes in JAK1, JAK2, TYK2, STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, p-STAT3, STAT6, and p-STAT6 (p < 0.05). Subsequently, p-IκBα, NF-κB, and p-NF-κB signaling factors were also reduced (p < 0.05), with corresponding changes in skin barrier factors. The results of this study indicate that CBG effectively alleviates AD-like symptoms and suggest the potential of CBG as a therapeutic agent.

Innovative approaches to eczema treatment: A review of Fevipiprant and its potential as a new therapeutic agent

Eczema is also known as atopic dermatitis, which goes on to affect the skin as a chronic inflammatory disease. It is associated with a constant feeling of scratchiness, erthyma and disruption of the natural skin barrier. Treatment provided at present may improve some of the symptoms, for instance use of corticosteroids or immunosuppressive agents, however, there is an overwhelming need for better focused and effective methods of treatment with minimal adverse effects. Fevipiprant, a DP2 receptor antagonist, has emerged as a promising agent targeting prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) pathways, which play a crucial role in eczema pathophysiology. This review examines the mechanism of action, pharmacological profile of Fevipiprant and present studies on preclinical and clinical development of Fevipiprant for treatment of eczema. Additionally, we provide a comparison of Fevipiprant with existing treatment options and evaluate its safety and tolerability. The evaluation gives a reason that targeting in the treatment of eczema by the use of Fevipiprant is able to effectively target the DP2 pathway which is associated with a good safetyl however presenting itself as a new treatment option in the management of eczema. Finally, long-term studies are essential to validate the feasibility, safety, and effectiveness of Fevipiprant compared to existing therapies for eczema. Novartis has taken advantage of this stat for comp… given the scarcity of effective therapies for paediatric atopic dermatitis in Japan. Exploring Fevipiprant from the Efficacy Perspective is also required because it will impact how it will enter clinical practice in therapy of eczema in the future.

Transdermal delivery of natural products against atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin condition. Natural products have gained traction in AD treatment due to their accessibility, low toxicity, and favorable pharmacological properties. However, their application is primarily constrained by poor solubility, instability, and limited permeability. The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) offers potential solutions for transdermal delivery, enhanced penetration, improved efficacy, and reduced toxicity of natural drugs, aligning with the requirements of modern AD treatment. This review examines the application of hydrogels, microneedles (MNs), liposomes, nanoemulsions, and other TDDS-carrying natural products in AD treatment, with a primary focus on their effects on penetration and accumulation in the skin. The aim is to provide valuable insights into the treatment of AD and other dermatological conditions.

Development of new dehydrocostuslactone derivatives for treatment of atopic dermatitis via inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway

Atopic dermatitis (AD), a recurrent inflammatory systemic skin disease, is difficult to cure. In the present study, several ethylenediamine-derived dehydrocostuslactone (DHCL) derivatives were prepared to assess their in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities. The results indicated that DHCL derivatives inhibited NO generation with low cytotoxicity. In particular, compound 5d exhibited the best anti-inflammatory activity. Subsequent experiments revealed that 5d not only inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 cells via the MAPK-NF-κB signaling pathway inhibition but also significantly decreased Th2-type cytokine levels and inhibited the NF-κB signaling pathway activation in mice with MC903-induced AD. Therefore, DHCL derivatives may be considered as new agents for the treatment of AD.

Beclomethasone loaded liposomes enriched with mucin: A suitable approach for the control of skin disorders

Inflammatory skin disorders are the fourth leading cause of chronic non-fatal conditions, which have a serious impact on the patient quality of life. Due to their treatment with conventional corticosteroids, which often result in poor therapeutic efficacy, relapses and systemic side effects from prolonged therapy, these diseases represent a global burden that negatively impacts the global economy. To avoid these problems and optimize corticosteroid benefits, beclomethasone was loaded into liposome formulations specifically tailored for skin delivery. These formulations were enhanced with mucin (0.1 and 0.5 % w/v) to further ensure prolonged formulation permanence at the site of application. The addition of 0.5 % w/v mucin resulted in the formation of small unilamellar vesicles and multicompartment vesicles. Liposomes and 1mucin-liposomes were smaller (∼48 and ∼61 nm, respectively) and more monodispersed (PI ∼ 0.14 and ∼ 0.17, respectively) than 5mucin-liposomes, which were larger (∼137 nm), slightly polydispersed (PI ∼ 0.23), and less stable during storage (4 months in the dark at 25 °C). Liposomes were negatively charged (∼ -79 mV) irrespective of their composition, and capable of incorporating high amount of beclomethasone (∼ 80 %). In vitro studies on skin fibroblasts and keratinocytes confirmed the high biocompatibility of all formulations (viability ≥ 95 %). However, the use of mucin-liposomes resulted in higher efficacy against nitric oxide production and free radical damage. Finally, topical applications using 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-injured skin in vivo experiments showed that only the mucin-enriched formulations could restore healthy conditions within 4 days, underscoring promise as a treatment for skin disorders.

Recent Advancements and Trends of Topical Drug Delivery Systems in Psoriasis: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis

Psoriasis is an immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease where topical therapy is crucial. While various dosage forms have enhanced the efficacy of current treatments, their limited permeability and lack of targeted delivery to the dermis and epidermis remain challenges. We reviewed the evolution of topical therapies for psoriasis and conducted a bibliometric analysis from 1993 to 2023 using a predictive linear regression model. This included a comprehensive statistical and visual evaluation of each model's validity, literature profiles, citation patterns, and collaborations, assessing R variance and mean squared error (MSE). Furthermore, we detailed the structural features and penetration pathways of emerging drug delivery systems for topical treatment, such as lipid-based, polymer-based, metallic nanocarriers, and nanocrystals, highlighting their advantages. This systematic overview indicates that future research should focus on developing novel drug delivery systems characterized by enhanced stability, biocompatibility, and drug-carrying capacity.

Microsponges: Development, Characterization, and Key Physicochemical Properties

Microsponges are promising drug delivery carriers with versatile characteristics and controlled release properties for the delivery of a wide range of drugs. The microsponges will provide an optimized therapeutic effect, when delivered at the site of action without rupturing, then releasing the cargo at the predetermined time and area. The ability of the microsponges to effectively deliver the drug in a controlled manner depends on the material composition. This comprehensive review entails knowledge on the design parameters of an optimized microsponge drug delivery system and the controlled release properties of microsponges that reduces the side effects of drugs. Furthermore, the review delves into the fabrication techniques of microsponges, the mechanism of drug release from the microsponges, and the regulatory requirements of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the successful marketing of microsponge formulation. The review also examines the patented formulations of microsponges. The prospects of these sophisticated drug delivery systems for improved clinical outcomes are highlighted.

Tacrolimus-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles as an efficient topical therapeutic for the effective treatment of atopic dermatitis symptoms

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic cutaneous disease with a complex underlying mechanism, and it cannot be completely cured. Thus, most treatment strategies for AD aim at relieving the symptoms. Although corticosteroids are topically applied to alleviate AD, adverse side effects frequently lead to the withdrawal of AD therapy. Tacrolimus (TAC), a calcineurin inhibitor, has been used to treat AD, but its high molecular weight and insolubility in water hinder its skin permeability. Herein, we developed and optimized TAC-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles (TAC@CNPs) to improve the skin permeability of TAC by breaking the tight junctions in the skin. The prepared nanoparticles were highly loadable and efficient and exhibited appropriate characteristics for percutaneous drug delivery. TAC@CNP was stable for 4 weeks under physiological conditions. CNP released TAC in a controlled manner, with enhanced skin penetration observed. In vitro experiments showed that CNP was non-toxic to keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells, and TAC@CNP dispersed in an aqueous solution was as anti-proliferative as TAC solubilized in a good organic solvent. Importantly, an in vivo AD mouse model revealed that topical TAC@CNP containing ~1/10 of the dose of TAC found in commercially used Protopic® Ointment exhibited similar anti-inflammatory activity to that of the commercial product. TAC@CNP represents a potential therapeutic strategy for the management of AD.

From oncogenes to tumor suppressors: The dual role of ncRNAs in fibrosarcoma

Fibrosarcoma is a challenging cancer originating from fibrous tissues, marked by aggressive growth and limited treatment options. The discovery of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), has opened new pathways for understanding and treating this malignancy. These ncRNAs play crucial roles in gene regulation, cellular processes, and the tumor microenvironment. This review aims to explore the impact of ncRNAs on fibrosarcoma's pathogenesis, progression, and resistance to treatment, focusing on their mechanistic roles and therapeutic potential. A comprehensive review of literature from databases like PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted, focusing on the dysregulation of ncRNAs in fibrosarcoma, their contribution to tumor growth, metastasis, drug resistance, and their cellular pathway interactions. NcRNAs significantly influence fibrosarcoma, affecting cell proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, and angiogenesis. Their function as oncogenes or tumor suppressors makes them promising biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Understanding their interaction with the tumor microenvironment is essential for developing more effective treatments for fibrosarcoma. Targeting ncRNAs emerges as a promising strategy for fibrosarcoma therapy, offering hope to overcome the shortcomings of existing treatments. Further investigation is needed to clarify specific ncRNAs' roles in fibrosarcoma and to develop ncRNA-based therapies, highlighting the significance of ncRNAs in improving patient outcomes in this challenging cancer.

Biofunctional Inorganic Layered Double Hydroxide Nanohybrid Enhances Immunotherapeutic Effect on Atopic Dermatitis Treatment

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a widespread, recurrent, and chronic inflammatory skin condition that imposes a major burden on patients. Conventional treatments, such as corticosteroids, are associated with various side effects, underscoring the need for innovative therapeutic approaches. In this study, the possibility of using indole-3-acetic acid-loaded layered double hydroxides (IAA-LDHs) is evaluated as a novel treatment for AD. IAA is an auxin-class plant hormone with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Following the synthesis of IAA-LDH nanohybrids, their ability to induce M2-like macrophage polarization in macrophages obtained from mouse bone marrow is assessed. The antioxidant activity of IAA-LDH is quantified by assessing the decrease in intracellular reactive oxygen species levels. The anti-inflammatory and anti-atopic characteristics of IAA-LDH are evaluated in a mouse model of AD by examining the cutaneous tissues, immunological organs, and cells. The findings suggest that IAA-LDH has great therapeutic potential as a candidate for AD treatment based on its in vitro and in vivo modulation of AD immunology, enhancement of macrophage polarization, and antioxidant activity. This inorganic drug delivery technology represents a promising new avenue for the development of safe and effective AD treatments.

Development of Curcumin and Turmerone Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticle for Topical Delivery: Optimization, Characterization and Skin Irritation Evaluation with 3D Tissue Model

Background

Curcuma longa L., commonly known as turmeric, is renowned for its therapeutic benefits attributed to bioactive compounds, namely curcumin (Cur) and aromatic turmerone (Tur), present in its rhizome. These compounds exhibit diverse therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor effects. However, the topical application of these compounds has a significant potential for inducing skin irritation. This study focuses on formulating solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) carriers encapsulating both Cur and Tur for reduced irritation and enhanced stability.

Methods

SLN formulations were prepared by a method using homogenization followed by ultrasonication procedures and optimized by applying response surface methodology (RSM).

Results

The optimized SLN formulation demonstrated entrapment efficiencies, with 77.21 ± 4.28% for Cur and 75.12 ± 2.51% for Tur. A size distribution of 292.11 ± 9.43 nm was obtained, which was confirmed to be a spherical and uniform shape via environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) images. The in vitro release study indicated cumulative releases of 71.32 ± 3.73% for Cur and 67.23 ± 1.64% for Tur after 24 hours under sink conditions. Physical stability tests confirmed the stability of formulation, allowing storage at 4°C for a minimum of 60 days. Notably, in vitro skin irritation studies, utilizing the reconstructed human epidermal model (EPI-200-SIT), revealed a significant reduction in irritation with the SLN containing Cur and Tur compared to nonencapsulated Cur and Tur.

Conclusion

These findings collectively endorse the optimized SLN formulation as a favorable delivery system for Cur and Tur in diverse topical uses, offering enhanced stability, controlled release and reduced irritation.

New Insights into Pharmaceutical Nanocrystals for the Improved Topical Delivery of Therapeutics in Various Skin Disorders

Nanotechnology has provided nanostructure-based delivery of drugs, among which nanocrystals have been investigated and explored for feasible topical drug delivery. Nanocrystals are nano-sized colloidal carriers, considered pure solid particles with a maximum drug load and a very small amount of stabilizer. The size or mean diameter of the nanocrystals is less than 1 μm and has a crystalline character. Prominent synthesis methods include the utilization of microfluidic- driven platforms as well as the milling approach, which is both adaptable and adjustable. Nanocrystals have shown a high capacity for loading drugs, utilization of negligible amounts of excipients, greater chemical stability, lower toxic effects, and ease of scale-up, as well as manufacturing. They have gained interest as drug delivery platforms, and the significantly large surface area of the skin makes it a potential approach for topical therapeutic formulations for different skin disorders including fungal and bacterial infections, psoriasis, wound healing, and skin cancers, etc. This article explores the preparation techniques, applications, and recent patents of nanocrystals for treating various skin conditions.

Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-based Approaches to Atopic Dermatitis and Emerging Trends in Drug Development and Design

Atopic dermatitis (AD), commonly known as Eczema, is a non-communicable skin condition that tends to become chronic. The deteriorating immunological abnormalities are marked by mild to severe erythema, severe itching, and recurrent eczematous lesions. Different pharmacological approaches are used to treat AD. The problem with commercial topical preparations lies in the limitation of skin atrophy, systemic side effects, and burning sensation that decreases patient compliance. The carrier-based system promises to eliminate these shortcomings; thus, a novel approach to treating AD is required. Liposomes, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanoemulsions, etc., have been developed recently to address this ailment. Despite extensive research in the development method and various techniques, it has been challenging to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of these carrier- based systems, which illustrates a gap among the different research areas. Further, different soft wares and other tools have proliferated among biochemists as part of a cooperative approach to drug discovery. It is crucial in designing, developing, and analyzing processes in the pharmaceutical industry and is widely used to reduce costs, accelerate the development of biologically innovative active ingredients, and shorten the development time. This review sheds light on the compilation of extensive efforts to combat this disease, the product development processes, commercial products along with patents in this regard, numerous options for each step of computer-aided drug design, including in silico pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity screening or predictions that are important in finding the drug-like compounds.

Recent Updates on the Therapeutics Benefits, Clinical Trials, and Novel Delivery Systems of Chlorogenic Acid for the Management of Diseases with a Special Emphasis on Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a multifactorial disorder of the large intestine, especially the colon, and has become a challenge globally. Allopathic medicines are primarily available for the treatment and prevention of UC. However, their uses are limited due to several side effects. Hence, an alternative therapy is of utmost importance in this regard. Herbal medicines are considered safe and effective for managing human health problems. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), the herbal-derived bioactive, has been reported for pharmacological effects like antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anticancer, etc. This review aims to understand the antiinflammatory and chemopreventive potential of CGA against UC. Apart from its excellent therapeutic potential, it has been associated with low absorption and poor oral bioavailability. In this context, colon-specific novel drug delivery systems (NDDS)are pioneering to overcome these problems. The pertinent literature was compiled from a thorough search on various databases such as ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, etc., utilizing numerous keywords, including ulcerative colitis, herbal drugs, CGA, pharmacological activities, mechanism of actions, nanoformulations, clinical updates, and many others. Relevant publications accessed till now were chosen, whereas non-relevant papers, unpublished data, and non-original articles were excluded. The present review comprises recent studies on pharmacological activities and novel drug delivery systems of CGA for managing UC. In addition, the clinical trials of CGA against UC have been discussed.

Comprehensive Review on Phytoconstituents-based Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is known as a chronic disease characterized by eczematous and pruritus skin lesions. The pathology behind atopic dermatitis etiology is loss of epidermal barrier, which prevents the production of protein filaggrin that can induce T-cell infiltration and inflammation. Treatment of AD is majorly based on limiting skin repair as well as reducing inflammation and itching. There are several remedies available for the treatment of AD, such as Janus kinase and calcineurin inhibitors, topical corticosteroids, and phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors. The conventional formulations in the market have limited safety and efficacy. Hence, effective treatment of atopic dermatitis requires the development of novel, efficacious, reliable, and specific therapies. Recent research data have revealed that some naturally occurring medicinal plants have potential applications in the management of AD through different mechanisms. The nanotechnology-based therapeutics have gained a lot of attention in the last decade for the improvement in the activity of drugs having low absorption due to poor solubility, thus leading to lesser bioavailability. Therapies based on nanotechnology can be an effective way to overcome these obstacles. Due to their effective propensity to provide better drug diffusion and bioavailability as well as drug targeting potential at the desired site of action, these approaches may have decreased adverse drug effects, better penetration, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Hence, this review highlights the potential of phytoconstituents-based novel formulations for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Furthermore, recent patents on therapeutic approaches to atopic dermatitis have also been briefly described.

Dysregulated Hippo Signaling Pathway and YAP Activation in Atopic Dermatitis: Insights from Clinical and Animal Studies

The yes-associated protein (YAP) of the Hippo pathway regulates a variety of target genes involved in cell proliferation, survival, and inflammation. YAP and transcription activator with a PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) proteins act as mediators of the inflammatory response. Still, their role in atopic dermatitis (AD)-particularly, the association with the nuclear factor kappa-B and Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathways-is not fully understood. In this study, we found that YAP, is upregulated in AD patients and NC/Nga mouse model of AD. In addition, inhibition of YAP significantly reduced epidermal cell proliferation by 58% and mast cell numbers by 51% and attenuated the upregulation of both Th1- and Th2-associated cytokines. Among the JAK-STAT family proteins, the expressions of JAK1 and JAK2 and those of STAT1, STAT2, and STAT3 were also downregulated. These findings may explain the role of YAP in AD and suggest YAP inhibitors as promising therapeutic agents for AD.

Development and Characterization of Terbinafine-Loaded Nanoemulgel for Effective Management of Dermatophytosis

Dermatophytosis, the most prevalent fungal infection, is witnessing a rising incidence annually. To address this challenge, we developed a terbinafine-loaded oil-in-water nanoemulsion (TH-NE) through the aqueous microtitration method. The formulation comprised olive oil (oil phase), Span 80 (surfactant), and propylene glycol (co-surfactant). Pseudo-phase ternary diagrams and thermodynamic studies underscored the stability of TH-NE. Employing the Box-Behnken design (BBD), we optimized TH-NE, which resulted in a remarkable particle size of 28.07 nm ± 0.5, a low polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.1922 ± 0.1, and a substantial negative zeta potential of -41.87 mV ± 1. Subsequently, TH-NE was integrated into a 1.5% carbopol matrix, yielding a nanoemulgel (TH-NEG). Texture analysis of TH-NEG demonstrated a firmness of 168.00 g, a consistency of 229.81 g/s, negative cohesiveness (-83.36 g), and a work of cohesion at -107.02 g/s. In vitro drug release studies revealed an initial burst effect followed by sustained release, with TH-NEG achieving an impressive 88% release over 48 h, outperforming TH-NE (74%) and the marketed formulation (66%). Ex vivo release studies mirrored these results, with TH-NEG (86%) and TH-NE (71%) showcasing sustained drug release in comparison to the marketed formulation (67%). Confocal microscopy illustrated that TH-NEG and TH-NE penetrated to depths of 30 µm and 25 µm, respectively, into the epidermal layer. Furthermore, dermatokinetic studies highlighted the enhanced drug penetration of TH-NEG compared to TH-NE through mouse skin. In summary, our study establishes TH-NEG as a promising carrier for terbinafine in treating dermatophytosis, offering improved drug delivery and sustained release potential.

Development of a Microfluidic Formatted Ultrasound-Controlled Monodisperse Lipid Vesicles' Hydrogel Dressing Combined with Ultrasound for Transdermal Drug Delivery System

Transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) has attracted much attention in the pharmaceutical technology area. However, the current methods are difficult to ensure penetration efficiency, controllability, and safety in the dermis, so its widespread clinical use has been limited. This work proposes an ultrasound-controlled monodisperse lipid vesicles (U-CMLVs) hydrogel dressing, which combines with ultrasound to form TDDS. Using microfluidic technology, prepare size controllable U-CMLVs with high drug encapsulation efficiency and quantitative encapsulation of ultrasonic response materials, and even uniform mix them with hydrogel to prepare the required thickness of dressings. The high encapsulation efficiency can ensure sufficient dosage of the drugs and further realize the control of ultrasonic response through quantitative encapsulation of ultrasound-responsive materials. Using high frequency (5 MHz, 0.4 W cm-2 ) and low frequency (60 kHz, 1 W cm-2 ) ultrasound to control the movement and rupture of U-CMLVs, the contents not only penetrate the stratum corneum into the epidermis but also break through the bottleneck of penetration efficiency, and deep into the dermis. These findings provide the groundwork for deep, controllable, efficient, and safe drug delivery through TDDS and lay a foundation for further expanding its application.

Fabrication and Evaluation of Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)/Eudragit L-100 Hydrogels with Fusidic Acid to Promote Eczema Treatment

In this study, hydrogels containing 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), Eudragit L-100, and fusidic acid in different compositions were prepared with the confinement method by using ammonium persulfate (APS) as a chemical initiator and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as a cross-linker to determine the most suitable formulation for use in eczema treatment. Fusidic acid (FA)-confined pHEMA/Eudragit L-100 in synthesis of the hydrogel was used with the Taguchi method, and the optimum synthesis conditions were determined. The swelling percentages of the hydrogels were calculated in different pH environments and distilled water. Also, the cream formulations developed and contained in chitosan and HEMA-based polymers were synthesized. Viscosity and pH values changed between 30,000 and 100,000 cP and between 5 and 6 for different cream formulations with various conditions, respectively. Also, swelling percentages of hydrogels were between 20 and 40. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were performed to characterize the hydrogel structure and the cream formulations. In addition, the stability of the formulations to 28 days and the changes in parameters such as appearance, centrifugation, pH, relative density, viscosity, spreading were evaluated, comparatively.

Nanotechnology-Based Topical Delivery of Natural Products for the Management of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic eczematous inflammatory disease that may arise from environmental, genetic, and immunological factors. Despite the efficacy of current treatment options such as corticosteroids, such approaches are mainly focused on symptom relief and may present certain undesirable side effects. In recent years, isolated natural compounds, oils, mixtures, and/or extracts have gained scientific attention because of their high efficiency and moderate to low toxicity. Despite their promising therapeutic effects, the applicability of such natural healthcare solutions is somewhat limited by their instability, poor solubility, and low bioavailability. Therefore, novel nanoformulation-based systems have been designed to overcome these limitations, thus enhancing the therapeutic potential, by promoting the capacity of these natural drugs to properly exert their action in AD-like skin lesions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first literature review that has focused on summarizing recent nanoformulation-based solutions loaded with natural ingredients, specifically for the management of AD. We suggest that future studies should focus on robust clinical trials that may confirm the safety and effectiveness of such natural-based nanosystems, thus paving the way for more reliable AD treatments.

Network pharmacology-based analysis to explore the therapeutic mechanism of Cortex Dictamni on atopic dermatitis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dermatitis is a common clinical chronic inflammatory skin disease, which incidence has been on the rise in recent years. It not only seriously affects the physical and mental health of patients but also increase economic burden. Currently, commonly used drugs such as corticosteroids, anti-histamines have certain side effects or are expensive. Therefore, the search for an alternative therapy for dermatitis has important clinical significance. Cortex Dictamni is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine for expelling wind and itching, but its mechanism for treating dermatitis is still unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacological analysis was performed to predict the potential targets and pathways of Cortex Dictamni against dermatitis. Molecular docking was used to assess the binding affinity of active compounds and core targets. By repeatedly stimulating the ears with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNFB), an atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model was established in order to study the anti-dermatitis effect of Cortex Dictamni. The skin thickness and inflammatory cell infiltration in mouse ears were assessed by tissue staining and flow cytometric. The levels of inflammatory factors were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the total protein and phosphorylation levels of related pathways were analyzed by western blotting.

RESULTS

In this study, 11 active ingredients, 122 Cortex Dictamni and dermatitis intersection targets were identified. The results from Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis showed that the core targets were mainly enriched in immune response and inflammatory signaling pathways. AD mice treated with ethanol extract of Cortex Dictamni (ECD) improved the symptoms of ear skin lesions, alleviated epidermis and dermis thickening of the AD mice ears, decreased pathological immune cell infiltration and attenuated the levels of inflammatory cytokines (TLR4, IL-6, IL-17), and inhibited the hyperactivation of the PI3K-AKT, JAK1-STAT3/STAT6 signal pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Cortex Dictamni can improve the symptoms of skin lesions and the degree of inflammation caused by AD, and may inhibit AD through multiple pathways, such as regulating PI3K-AKT and JAK1-STAT3/STAT6 pathways. These results not only provide experimental evidence for the clinical application of Cortex Dictamni but also provide some help for the research and development of dermatitis drugs.

Past, present and future of biomedical applications of dextran-based hydrogels: A review

This review extensively surveys the biomedical applications of hydrogels containing dextran. Dextran has gained much attention as a biomaterial due to its distinctive properties such as biocompatibility, non-toxicity, water solubility and biodegradability. It has emerged as a critical constituent of hydrogels for biomedical applications including drug delivery devices, tissue engineering scaffolds and biosensor materials. The benefits, challenges and potential prospects of dextran-based hydrogels as biomaterials are highlighted in this review.

Transport of hydrocortisone in targeted layers of the skin by multi-lamellar liposomes

Hydrocortisone (HyC), a hydrophobic pharmaceutical active, was encapsulated in multi-lamellar liposomes (MLLs) composed of P100, a mixture of phospholipids, and Tween®80. Three different HyC-loaded formulations were designed to target the stratum corneum, the living epidermis and the hypodermis. The impact of encapsulation on their size, elasticity and zeta potential, the three key factors controlling MLLs skin penetration, was studied. Raman mapping of phospholipids and HyC allowed the localisation of both components inside an artificial skin, Strat-M®, demonstrating the efficiency of the targeting. Percutaneous permeation profiles through excised human skin were performed over 48 h, supporting results on artificial skin. Their modelling revealed that HyC encapsulated in MLLs, designed to target the stratum corneum and living epidermis, exhibited a non-Fickian diffusion process. In contrast, a Fickian diffusion was found for HyC administered in solution, in a pharmaceutical cream and in transdermal MLLs. These results allowed us to propose a mechanism of interaction between HyC-containing MLLs and the skin.

The Contest of Nanoparticles: Searching for the Most Effective Topical Delivery of Corticosteroids

Owing to their complicated pathophysiology, the treatment of skin diseases necessitates a complex approach. Conventional treatment using topical corticosteroids often results in low effectiveness and the incidence of local or even systemic side effects. Nanoformulation of potent anti-inflammatory drugs has been selected as an optimal strategy for enhanced topical delivery of corticosteroids. In order to assess the efficiency of various nanoformulations, we formulated hydrocortisone (HC) and hydrocortisone-17-butyrate (HCB) into three different systems: lipid nanocapsules (LNC), polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), and ethosomes (ETZ). The systems were characterized using dynamic light scattering for their particle size and uniformity and the morphology of nanoparticles was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The nanosystems were tested using ex vivo full thickness porcine and human skin for the delivery of HC and HCB. The skin penetration was observed by confocal microscopy of fluorescently labelled nanosystems. ETZ were proposed as the most effective delivery system for both transdermal and dermal drug targeting but were also found to have a profound effect on the skin barrier with limited restoration. LNC and PNP were found to have significant effects in the dermal delivery of the actives with only minimal transdermal penetration, especially in case of HCB administration.

Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells and Epithelial Progenitor Cells: A Comprehensive Study

Technological advancement to enhance tumor cells (TC) has allowed discovery of various cellular bio-markers: cancer stem cells (CSC), circulating tumor cells (CTC), and endothelial progenitor cells (EPC). These are responsible for resistance, metastasis, and premetastatic conditions of cancer. Detection of CSC, CTC, and EPC assists in early diagnosis, recurrence prediction, and treatment efficacy. This review describes various methods to detect TC subpopulations such as in vivo assays (sphere-forming, serial dilution, and serial transplantation), in vitro assays (colony-forming cells, microsphere, side-population, surface antigen staining, aldehyde dehydrogenase activity, and Paul Karl Horan label-retaining cells, surface markers, nonenriched and enriched detection), reporter systems, and other analytical methods (flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy/spectroscopy, etc.). The detailed information on methods to detect CSC, CTC, and EPC in this review will assist investigators in successful prognosis, diagnosis, and cancer treatment with greater ease.

Roles and therapeutic potential of CD1d-Restricted NKT cells in inflammatory skin diseases

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are innate-like T lymphocytes that recognize glycolipid antigens rather than peptides. Due to their immunoregulatory properties, extensive work has been done to elucidate the immune functions of NKT cells in various immune contexts such as autoimmunity for more than two decades. In addition, as research on barrier immunity such as the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue has flourished in recent years, the role of NKT cells to immunity in the skin has attracted substantial attention. Here, we review the contributions of NKT cells to regulating skin inflammation and discuss the factors that can modulate the functions of NKT cells in inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis. This mini-review article will mainly focus on CD1d-dependent NKT cells and their therapeutic potential in skin-related immune diseases.

A PEGylated Nanostructured Lipid Carrier for Enhanced Oral Delivery of Antibiotics

Antimicrobial resistance is a major concern for public health throughout the world that severely restricts available treatments. In this context, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is responsible for a high percentage of S. aureus infections and mortality. To overcome this challenge, nanoparticles are appropriate tools as drug carriers to improve the therapeutic efficacy and decrease the toxicity of drugs. In this study, a polyethylene glycol (PEG)ylated nanostructured lipid carrier (PEG-NLC) was synthesized to improve the oral delivery of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMZ) for the treatment of MRSA skin infection in vitro and in vivo. The nanoformulation (PEG-TMP/SMZ-NLC) was synthesized with size and drug encapsulation efficiencies of 187 ± 9 nm and 93.3%, respectively, which could release the drugs in a controlled manner at intestinal pH. PEG-TMP/SMZ-NLC was found efficient in decreasing the drugs’ toxicity by 2.4-fold in vitro. In addition, the intestinal permeability of TMP/SMZ was enhanced by 54%, and the antibacterial effects of the drugs were enhanced by 8-fold in vitro. The results of the stability study demonstrated that PEG-TMP/SMZ-NLC was stable for three months. In addition, the results demonstrated that PEG-TMP/SMZ-NLC after oral administration could decrease the drugs’ side-effects such as renal and hepatic toxicity by ~5-fold in MRSA skin infection in Balb/c mice, while it could improve the antibacterial effects of TMP/SMZ by 3 orders of magnitude. Overall, the results of this study suggest that the application of PEGylated NLC nanoparticles is a promising approach to improving the oral delivery of TMP/SMZ for the treatment of MRSA skin infection.

Xanthotoxin (8-methoxypsoralen): A review of its chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity

Xanthotoxin (XAT) is a natural furanocoumarins, a bioactive psoralen isolated from the fruit of the Rutaceae plant Pepper, which has received increasing attention in recent years due to its wide source and low cost. By collecting and compiling literature on XAT, the results show that XAT exhibits significant activity in the treatment of various diseases, including neuroprotection, skin repair, osteoprotection, organ protection, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antioxidative stress and antibacterial. In this paper, we review the pharmacological activity and potential molecular mechanisms of XAT for the treatment of related diseases. The data suggest that XAT can mechanistically induce ROS production and promote apoptosis through mitochondrial or endoplasmic reticulum pathways, regulate NF-κB, MAPK, JAK/STAT, Nrf2/HO-1, MAPK, AKT/mTOR, and ERK1/2 signaling pathways to exert pharmacological effects. In addition, the pharmacokinetics properties and toxicity of XAT are discussed in this paper, further elucidating the relationship between structure and efficacy. It is worth noting that data from clinical studies of XAT are still scarce, limiting the use of XAT in the clinic, and in the future, more in-depth studies are needed to determine the clinical efficacy of XAT.

Phytochemical-based nanodrug delivery in cancer therapy

There are estimated to be 13.1 million cancer deaths by 2030, with 7.6 million deaths occurring each year. Phytochemicals have long been used in traditional medicine to cure cancer. However, conventional therapy for metastatic illness may fail if cancer cells become resistant to multiple anticancer drugs. Phytochemicals encapsulated in nano-based medication delivery devices were studied for their cancer- and chemo-preventive properties. Nanocarriers containing phytoconstituents have been studied in terms of loading efficiency, nanocarrier size, the release profile of the drug, and cell inhibition and treatment tests.

Niosomal Nanocarriers for Enhanced Dermal Delivery of Epigallocatechin Gallate for Protection against Oxidative Stress of the Skin

Among green tea catechins, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant and has the highest biological activities. This study aims to develop and statistically optimise an EGCG-loaded niosomal system to overcome the cutaneous barriers and provide an antioxidant effect. EGCG-niosomes were prepared by thin film hydration method and statistically optimised. The niosomes were characterised for size, zeta potential, morphology and entrapment efficiency. Ex vivo permeation and deposition studies were conducted using full-thickness human skin. Cell viability, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzyme activities after UVA-irradiation and cellular uptake were determined. The optimised niosomes were spherical and had a relatively uniform size of 235.4 ± 15.64 nm, with a zeta potential of −45.2 ± 0.03 mV and an EE of 53.05 ± 4.46%. The niosomes effectively prolonged drug release and demonstrated much greater skin penetration and deposition than free EGCG. They also increased cell survival after UVA-irradiation, reduced lipid peroxidation, and increased the antioxidant enzymes’ activities in human dermal fibroblasts (Fbs) compared to free EGCG. Finally, the uptake of niosomes was via energy-dependent endocytosis. The optimised niosomes have the potential to be used as a dermal carrier for antioxidants and other therapeutic compounds in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.