Ethanol production in a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process with interconnected reactors employing hydrodynamic cavitation-pretreated sugarcane bagasse as raw material

Critical analysis of process parameters towards smart bioreactors development in biorefinery for biorenewables production

The development of sustainable biotechnological processes is important for advancements in production of renewable chemicals, biofuels, and materials. A significant challenge is handling high biomass total solids (TS) loading, which is significant to enhance the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of biorefineries. Further, advancements in biomass pretreatment methods, such as hydrodynamic cavitation, that are employed to disrupt the complex structure of biomass, facilitating enzymatic hydrolysis and improving overall process yields, have shown promising results. Efficient pretreatment, novel enzyme evolution and hydrolysis using high TS concentration coupled with process intensification approaches i.e. simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), and consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) could be revolutionary in the biomass refineries. There are some key factors influencing reactor performance, such as biomass characteristics, mass transfer, enzyme characteristics, rheology, and heat transfer. These factors are critical in overcoming the challenges associated with high TS loading, including increased viscosity, microorganism selection and reduced mixing efficiency. This review highlights such critical factors when dealing with high biomass loading, by presenting strategies and reactor configurations to improve the scalability and economic viability of lignocellulosic biorefineries.

Lignin from Plant-Based Agro-Industrial Biowastes: From Extraction to Sustainable Applications

Lignin, the most abundant aromatic polymer in nature, plays a critical role in lignocellulosic biomasses by providing structural support. However, its presence complicates the industrial exploitation of these materials for biofuels, paper production and other high-value compounds. Annually, the industrial extraction of lignin reaches an estimated 225 million tons, yet only a fraction is recovered for reuse, with most incinerated as low-value fuel. The growing interest in lignin potential has sparked research into sustainable recovery methods from lignocellulosic agro-industrial wastes. This review examines the chemical, physical and physicochemical processes for isolating lignin, focusing on innovative, sustainable technologies that align with the principles of a circular economy. Key challenges include lignin structural complexity and heterogeneity, which hinder its efficient extraction and application. Nonetheless, its properties such as high thermal stability, biodegradability and abundant carbon content place lignin as a promising material for diverse industrial applications, including chemical synthesis and energy generation. A structured analysis of advancements in lignin extraction, characterization and valorization offers insights into transforming this undervalued by-product into a vital resource, reducing reliance on non-renewable materials while addressing environmental sustainability.

Sustainable valorization of sugarcane residues: Efficient deconstruction strategies for fuels and chemicals production

The global climate crisis and the ongoing increase in fossil-based fuels have led to an alternative solution of using biomass for fuel production. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) is an agricultural residue with a global production of more than 100 million metric tons and it has various applications in a biorefinery concept. This review brings forth the composition, life cycle assessment, and various pretreatments for the deconstruction techniques of SCB for the production of valuable products. The ongoing research in the production of biofuels, biogas, and electricity utilizing the bagasse was elucidated. SCB is used in the production of carboxymethyl cellulose, pigment, lactic acid, levulinic acid, and xylooligosaccharides and it has prospective in meeting the demand for global energy and environmental sustainability.

Cavitation based cleaner technologies for biodiesel production and processing of hydrocarbon streams: A perspective on key fundamentals, missing process data and economic feasibility - A review

The present review emphasizes the role of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) and acoustic cavitation in clean and green technologies for selected fuels (of hydrocarbon origins such as gasoline, naphtha, diesel, heavy oil, and crude oil) processing applications including biodiesel production. Herein, the role of cavitation reactors, their geometrical parameters, physicochemical properties of liquid media, liquid oxidants, catalyst loading, reactive oxygen species, and different types of emulsification and formation of radicals, formation as well as extraction of formed by-products are systematically reviewed. Among all types of HC reactors, vortex diode and single hole orifices revealed more than 95 % desulfurization yield and a 20 % viscosity reduction in heavy oil upgrading, while multi-hole orifice (100 holes) and slit Venturi allowed obtaining the best biodiesel production processes in terms of high (%) yield, low cost of treatment, and short processing time (5 min; 99 % biodiesel; 4.80 USD/m³). On the other hand, the acoustic cavitation devices are likely to be the most effective in biodiesel production based on ultrasonic bath (90 min; 95 %; 6.7 $/m³) and desulfurization treatment based on ultrasonic transducers (15 min; 98.3 % desulfurization; 10.8 $/m³). The implementation of HC-based processes reveals to be the most cost-effective method over acoustic cavitation-based devices. Finally, by reviewing the ongoing applications and development works, the limitations and challenges for further research are addressed emphasizing the cleaner production and guidelines for future scientists to assure obtaining comprehensive data useful for the research community.

Recent advances in hydrodynamic cavitation-based pretreatments of lignocellulosic biomass for valorization

Recently, the hydrodynamic cavitation (HC)-based pretreatment has shown high effectiveness in laboratories and even in industrial productions for conversion of lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) into value-added products. The pretreatment capability derives from the extraordinary conditions of pressures at ∼500 bar, local hotspots with ∼5000 K, and oxidation (hydroxyl radicals) created by HC at room conditions. To promote this emerging technology, the present review summarizes the recent advances in the HC-based pretreatment of LCB. The principle of HC including the sonochemical effect and hydrodynamic cavitation reactor is introduced. The effectiveness of HC on the delignification of LCB as well as subsequent fermentation, paper production, and other applications is evaluated. Several key operational factors (i.e., reaction environment, duration, and feedstock characteristics) in HC pretreatments are discussed. The enhancement mechanism of HC including physical and chemical effects is analyzed. Finally, the perspectives on future research on the HC-based pretreatment technology are highlighted.

A review on recent developments in hydrodynamic cavitation and advanced oxidative processes for pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials

Environmental problems due to utilization of fossil-derived materials for energy and chemical generation has prompted the use of renewable alternative sources, such as lignocellulose biomass (LB). Indeed, the production of biomolecules and biofuels from LB is among the most important current research topics aiming to development a sustainable bioeconomy. Yet, the industrial use of LB is limited by the recalcitrance of biomass, which impairs the hydrolysis of the carbohydrate fractions. Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) and Advanced Oxidative Processes (AOPs) has been proposed as innovative pretreatment strategies aiming to reduce process time and chemical inputs. Therefore, the underlying mechanisms, procedural strategies, influence on biomass structure, and research gaps were critically discussed in this review. The performed discussion can contribute to future developments, giving a wide overview of the main involved aspects.

Hydrodynamic cavitation for lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment: a review of recent developments and future perspectives

The hydrodynamic cavitation comes out as a promising route to lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment releasing huge amounts of energy and inducing physical and chemical transformations, which favor lignin-carbohydrate matrix disruption. The hydrodynamic cavitation process combined with other pretreatment processes has shown an attractive alternative with high pretreatment efficiency, low energy consumption, and easy setup for large-scale applications compared to conventional pretreatment methods. This present review includes an overview of this promising technology and a detailed discussion on the process of parameters that affect the phenomena and future perspectives of development of this area.

Recent advances in commercial biorefineries for lignocellulosic ethanol production: Current status, challenges and future perspectives

Cellulosic ethanol production has received global attention to use as transportation fuels with gasoline blending virtue of carbon benefits and decarbonization. However, due to changing feedstock composition, natural resistance, and a lack of cost-effective pretreatment and downstream processing, contemporary cellulosic ethanol biorefineries are facing major sustainability issues. As a result, we've outlined the global status of present cellulosic ethanol facilities, as well as main roadblocks and technical challenges for sustainable and commercial cellulosic ethanol production. Additionally, the article highlights the technical and non-technical barriers, various R&D advancements in biomass pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation strategies that have been deliberated for low-cost sustainable fuel ethanol. Moreover, selection of a low-cost efficient pretreatment method, process simulation, unit integration, state-of-the-art in one pot saccharification and fermentation, system microbiology/ genetic engineering for robust strain development, and comprehensive techno-economic analysis are all major bottlenecks that must be considered for long-term ethanol production in the transportation sector.

Cellulosic Ethanol: Improving Cost Efficiency by Coupling Semi-Continuous Fermentation and Simultaneous Saccharification Strategies

A novel approach to improve ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse is proposed. Biomass was pretreated with sodium hydroxide, sulfuric, oxalic, and maleic acids (1% w/v) at different temperatures (130–170 °C) and times (10–30 min). The pretreatment with NaOH at 160 °C for 20 min was found to be the most efficient for further enzymatic saccharification. A semi-continuous fermentation system coupled with a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation strategy was used, attaining fermented liquor every 24 h. The amount of enzymes needed for saccharification was optimized, as well as the production time and ethanol concentration. The process occurred with near to complete depletion of glucose, obtaining ethanol concentrations ranging from 8.36 to 10.79% (v/v). The whole system, at bench scale, showed stability over 30 days, and ease of management and control. This strategy may improve cost efficiency in the production of cellulosic ethanol at industrial scale.

Theoretical modeling and experimental validation of hydrodynamic cavitation reactor with a Venturi tube for sugarcane bagasse pretreatment

A hydrodynamic cavitation reactor with a Venturi tube was modeled through a computational fluid dynamics approach in order to evaluate the influence of pressure ratio, diameter and length of the throat zone. A cavitation reactor equipped with a Venturi tube was built in accordance with the computational modeling results. Hydrodynamic cavitation assisted alkaline pretreatment was performed to evaluate the influence of NaOH concentration (1-5%), the weight to volume percentage of solid in liquid (1-5%) and the reaction time (20-60 min.) in the lignin removal. The response surface methodology was used to optimize pretreatment parameters for maximum lignin removal. The optimal condition was 4.90% of NaOH and a solid weight percentage in liquid of 2.03% in 58.33 min, resulting in a maximum removal of 56.01% of lignin. Hydrodynamic cavitation can be easy to employ, an efficient and promissory pretreatment tool.

Sustainable valorization of sugar industry waste: Status, opportunities, and challenges

Sugarcane processing in sugar industry results in generation of vast amounts of wastes, which can be valorized to biofuels and value-added chemicals based on the concept of circular bioeconomy. For successful commercialization, economic and technological bottlenecks must be clearly identified. In this review, the state of the art of various valorization routes are discussed for each waste stream. Subsequently, studies quantifying the environmental impacts and performing techno-economic assessment are reviewed. The scope and bottlenecks involved in the commercialization of these routes are identified and discussed. The review shows that electricity production from bagasse has matured as a technology but the production of value-added chemicals is still lagging. Here, downstream separation and purification are the major hurdles needing technological innovation. Moreover, indirect environmental and human health benefits due to waste valorization are not adequately accounted for. Further, strong trade-offs between economic and environmental performance exist, necessitating systematic and region-specific decision-making framework.

Hydrodynamic cavitation-assisted continuous pre-treatment of sugarcane bagasse for ethanol production: Effects of geometric parameters of the cavitation device

For biotechnological conversion of lignocellulosic biomass, a pre-treatment step is required before enzymatic hydrolysis of carbohydrate fractions of the material, which is required to produce fermentable sugars for generation of ethanol or other products in a biorefinery. The most of the reported pre-treatment technologies are in batch operation mode, presenting some disadvantages as dead times in the process. In this context, hydrodynamic cavitation (HC)-assisted alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP) pre-treatment in continuous process was proposed for pre-treatment of sugarcane bagasse (SCB). The system was designed with a main reactor containing two devices to generate cavitation by passing liquid medium through orifice plates. For SCB pretreated in continuous process, 52.79, 34.31, 22.13 and 15.81 g of total reducing sugars (TRS) per 100 g of SCB were released in samples pretreated using orifice plates with a number of holes of 24 (d = 0.45 mm), 16 (d = 0.65 mm), 12 (d = 0.8 mm) and 8 (d = 1 mm), respectively. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tools showed that 0.94 of vapor phase volume fraction and 0.19 of cavitation number were achieved at 31 m/s of throat velocity and upstream pressure of 350,000 Pa. By using pretreated SCB, 28.44 g of ethanol/L (84.31% of yield respect to theoretical value) was produced by immobilized Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL-Y7124 in a simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation process at high solid loading (16% S/L). Thus, HC-assisted process was proved as a promising technology for valorization of lignocellulosic biomass.

Sustainability of sugarcane lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment for the production of bioethanol

The sustainability of a biofuel is severely affected by the technological route of its production. Chemical pretreatment can be considered the traditional method of decomposition of the lignocellulose into its mono and oligomeric units, which can be further bioconverted to ethanol. The evaluation of the recent advances in chemical pretreatments of sugarcane bagasse, especially diluted acids, alkaline, organosolv and ionic liquids, identified the critical points for sustainability. In this context, chemicals recovery and reutilization or their substitution by green solvents, heat and electricity generation through bioenergy, reutilization of water from evaporators, vinasse concentration and the upgrading of lignin were discussed as strategic routes for developing sustainable chemical-based lignocellulose pretreatment. The advances in the technologies that allow greater fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass should be focused on the minimization of the use of natural resources, effluent generation and energy expenditure.

Controlled Hydrodynamic Cavitation: A Review of Recent Advances and Perspectives for Greener Processing

The 20th century has witnessed a remarkable enhancement in the demand for varieties of consumer products, ranging from food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, to other industries. To enhance the quality of the product and to reduce the production cost, industries are gradually inclined towards greener processing technologies. Cavitation-based technologies are gaining interest among processing technologies due to their cost effectiveness in operation, minimization of toxic solvent usage, and ability to obtain superior processed products compared to conventional methods. Also, following the recent advancements, cavitation technology with large-scale processing applicability is only denoted to the hydrodynamic cavitation (HC)-based method. This review includes a general overview of hydrodynamic cavitation-based processing technologies and a detailed discussion regarding the process effectiveness. HC has demonstrated its usefulness in food processing, extraction of valuable products, biofuel synthesis, emulsification, and waste remediation, including broad-spectrum contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, bacteria, dyes, and organic pollutants of concern. Following the requirement of a specific process, HC has been implemented either alone or in combination with other process-intensifying steps, for example, catalyst, surfactant, ultraviolet (UV), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and ozone (O3), for better performance. The reactor set-up of HC includes orifice, slit venturi, rotor-stator, and sonolator type constrictions that initiate and control the formation of bubbles. Moreover, the future directions have also been pointed out with careful consideration of specific drawbacks.

Matrices (re)loaded: Durability, viability, and fermentative capacity of yeast encapsulated in beads of different composition during long-term fed-batch culture

Encapsulated microbes have been used for decades to produce commodities ranging from methyl ketone to beer. Encapsulated cells undergo limited replication, which enables them to more efficiently convert substrate to product than planktonic cells and which contributes to their stress resistance. To determine how encapsulated yeast supports long-term, repeated fed-batch ethanologenic fermentation, and whether different matrices influence that process, fermentation and indicators of matrix durability and cell viability were monitored in high-dextrose, fed-batch culture over 7 weeks. At most timepoints, ethanol yield (g/g) in encapsulated cultures exceeded that in planktonic cultures. And frequently, ethanol yield differed among the four matrices tested: sodium alginate crosslinked with Ca2+ and chitosan, sodium alginate crosslinked with Ca2+ , Protanal alginate crosslinked with Ca2+ and chitosan, Protanal alginate crosslinked with Ca2+ , with the last of these consistently demonstrating the highest values. Young's modulus and viscosity were higher for matrices crosslinked with chitosan over the first week; thereafter values for both parameters declined and were indistinguishable among treatments. Encapsulated cells exhibited greater heat shock tolerance at 50°C than planktonic cells in either stationary or exponential phase, with similar thermotolerance observed across all four matrix types. Altogether, these data demonstrate the feasibility of re-using encapsulated yeast to convert dextrose to ethanol over at least 7 weeks.

Evaluation of combined semi-humid chemo-mechanical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass in energy efficiency and waste generation

A combination of chemo-mechanical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass was developed with objectives to evaluate and optimize the energy efficiency and waste generation occurred in the pretreatment process. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) was chemically pretreated with alkaline and alkaline peroxide followed by mechanical size reduction and enzymatic hydrolysis. The high solid and low solid loading pretreatments were studied to compare the total energy consumption, energy efficiency as well as waste generation. SCBSHNa (1:5) namely semi-humid chemo-mechanical pretreatment was found as the most effective pretreatment by decreasing 65% of total energy consumption. Moreover, the SCBSHNa (1:5) achieved the highest energy efficiency resulting in 0.536 kg reducing sugars/kWh and generated 0.33 kg of waste/kg reducing sugars. The developed process represented the advantages on energy efficiency and less waste generation compared to the conventional chemical soaking pretreatment process.

Pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse using hydrodynamic cavitation technology: Semi-continuous and continuous process

Development of new technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is a current research challenge. In this way, hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) was used to assist alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) in sequential batches (SB-HC), semi-continuous (SC-HC) and continuous (C-HC) processes. Pretreatment resulted in compositional modifications in the material, mainly regarding the cellulose and lignin contents. The released sugars after enzymatic hydrolysis resulted, on average, in 42 g and 32-35 g of glucose per 100 g of SCB for samples treated in B-HC (10 min of process) and SC-HC process (7.5 min residence time), respectively. In C-HC process, with an average residence time of 7.5 min and 3.75 min, 38-46 g and 32-38 g of glucose per 100 g of SCB were obtained respectively in enzymatic hydrolysis step. HC technology was shown as a promising alternative for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass in all evaluated configurations aiming to produce high value bioproducts.

Ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse: Use of different fermentation strategies to enhance an environmental-friendly process

Ethanol production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) using sugarcane bagasse as substrate was developed using batch and fed-batch mode. Acid, alkali, hydrothermal and hydrogen peroxide pretreatments to the sugarcane bagasse were tested. Experiments were carried out to optimize the enzyme load of cellulases and β-glucosidase. Four strains, two of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and two of Kluyveromyces marxianus yeast species were evaluate using SSF to produce ethanol. A kinetic study in bioreactor was carried out to optimize the SSF. The batch process was optimized using 1.0 g/L of inoculum, 15.0 FPU/g cellulose of cellulases and 6.0% of initial cellulose reaching 92.0% of theoretical ethanol yield after 18 h using the bagasse pretreate by acid-alkali and S. cerevisiae PE-2. The fed-batch process with enzyme load three times lower than that was used in batch process, obtained 88% of theoretical ethanol yield in 40 h. Therefore, the use of the lignocellulosic biomass (sugarcane bagasse) for producing a biofuel (ethanol) reduces the need for oil and is an environmental-friendly process.

A new approach for bioethanol production from sugarcane bagasse using hydrodynamic cavitation assisted-pretreatment and column reactors

Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) was adopted to assist alkaline-hydrogen peroxide pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse (SCB). In the following condition: 0.29 M of NaOH, 0.78% (v/v) of H₂O₂, 9.95 min of process time and 3 bar of inlet pressure, 95.4% of digestibility of cellulosic fraction was achieved. To take the best use of the pretreated biomass, the overall process was intensified by way of employing a packed bed flow-through column reactor and thus enabling to handle a high solid loading of 20%, thereby leading to cellulose and hemicellulose conversions to 74.7% and 75%, respectively. In the fermentation step, a bubble column reactor was introduced to maximize ethanol production from the pretreated SCB by Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL-Y7124, resulting in 31.50 g/L of ethanol, 0.49 g/g of ethanol yield and 0.68 g/L.h of productivity. All this showed that our HC-assisted NaOH-H₂O₂ pretreatment strategy along with the process intensification approach might offer an option for SCB-based biorefineries.

Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biorefinery: Research focuses

To realize lignocellulosic biorefinery is of global interest, with enzymatic saccharification presenting an essential stage to convert polymeric sugars to mono-sugars for fermentation use. This mini-review summarizes qualitatively the research focuses discussed the review articles presented in the past 22 months and other relevant papers. The research focuses on pretreatment with improved efficiency, enhanced enzyme production with high yields and high extreme tolerance, feasible combined saccharification and fermentation processes, detailed mechanisms corresponding to the enzymatic saccharification in lignocellulosic biorefinery, and the costs are discussed.