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Ebrahimi R, Fathi M, Ghoddusi HB. Pickering emulsions stabilized by cellulose nanocrystals extracted from hazelnut shells: Production and stability under different harsh conditions. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 258:128982. [PMID: 38154718 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are biodegradable particles that have emerged as promising stabilizers for Pickering emulsions. This study investigated the effectiveness of CNCs in forming the Pickering emulsion from hazelnut shells (HS), an agricultural waste. Following the alkaline and bleaching treatments applied to HS, CNCs were obtained from treated hazelnut shell with acid hydrolysis. The physicochemical characteristics of CNCs were investigated using dynamic light scattering, XRD, FTIR, SEM, and TEM. A high crystalline (69.6 %) CNCs with a spherical shape were obtained. Contact angle and interfacial tension tests were conducted and showed that CNCs had amphiphilic nature. Pickering emulsions were investigated for their size, zeta potential, and stability under varying CNC concentrations. The results showed that when CNCs concentration increased from 0.5 to 2.0 wt%, droplet diameter decreased approximately 1.8 times and zeta potential increased. Creaming was not observed during 28 days of storage in a concentration of 2.0 wt% CNCs. The CNC stabilized emulsions exhibited high stability within a range of pH, temperatures, and salt concentrations. This study demonstrated that CNCs extracted from HS as environmentally friendly and cost-effective materials, could serve as a new stabilizer for Pickering emulsions especially for high temperature and low pH sensitive products such as mayonnaise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reyhaneh Ebrahimi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran
| | - Milad Fathi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - Hamid B Ghoddusi
- Microbiology Research Unit (MRU), School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, UK
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2
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Xu J, Wang P, Yuan B, Zhang H. Rheology of cellulose nanocrystal and nanofibril suspensions. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 324:121527. [PMID: 37985059 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Nanocellulose is a sustainable nanomaterial and a versatile green platform that has attracted increasing attention. Although the wide applications of its aqueous suspensions are closely related to rheology, comprehensive studies of their rheological behavior, especially the yielding behavior, are still limited. Herein, to investigate the relationship between structure and rheological properties, the viscoelasticity, thixotropy and yielding behavior of two commonly used nanocelluloses, rod-shaped cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and filamentous cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), were systematically investigated. The viscosity, viscoelasticity and thixotropic behavior of the suspensions were analyzed by steady-state shear, frequency sweep, creep-recovery, hysteresis loop, and three-interval thixotropic recovery tests. The yielding behaviors were evaluated through creep, steady-state shear, step shear rate, stress ramps, amplitude sweep, and large amplitude oscillatory shear tests. The rheological properties of the two typical suspensions showed a strong dependence on concentration and time. However, compared to CNC suspensions, CNF suspensions exhibited stronger thixotropy and higher yield stress due to the higher aspect ratio of CNF and the stronger structural skeleton of the suspensions as supported by Simha's equation and micromorphology analysis. This work provides a theoretical rheology basis for the practical applications of nanocellulose suspensions in various fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiatong Xu
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Pengguang Wang
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Baihua Yuan
- Institute of Marine Equipment, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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3
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Las-Casas B, Dias IKR, Yupanqui-Mendoza SL, Pereira B, Costa GR, Rojas OJ, Arantes V. The emergence of hybrid cellulose nanomaterials as promising biomaterials. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 250:126007. [PMID: 37524277 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose nanomaterials (CNs) are promising green materials due to their unique properties as well as their environmental benefits. Among these materials, cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and nanocrystals (CNCs) are the most extensively researched types of CNs. While they share some fundamental properties like low density, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity, they also possess unique differentiating characteristics such as morphology, rheology, aspect ratio, crystallinity, mechanical and optical properties. Therefore, numerous comparative studies have been conducted, and recently, various studies have reported the synergetic advantages resulting from combining CNF and CNC. In this review, we initiate by addressing the terminology used to describe combinations of these and other types of CNs, proposing "hybrid cellulose nanomaterials" (HCNs) as the standardized classifictation for these materials. Subsequently, we briefly cover aspects of properties-driven applications and the performance of CNs, from both an individual and comparative perspective. Next, we comprehensively examine the potential of HCN-based materials, highlighting their performance for various applications. In conclusion, HCNs have demonstraded remarkable success in diverse areas, such as food packaging, electronic devices, 3D printing, biomedical and other fields, resulting in materials with superior performance when compared to neat CNF or CNC. Therefore, HCNs exhibit great potential for the development of environmentally friendly materials with enhanced properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Las-Casas
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Isabella K R Dias
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Sergio Luis Yupanqui-Mendoza
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Bárbara Pereira
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Guilherme R Costa
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Orlando J Rojas
- Bioproducts Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Valdeir Arantes
- Laboratory of Applied Bionanotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil.
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4
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Dias IKR, Lacerda BK, Arantes V. High-yield production of rod-like and spherical nanocellulose by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of mechanically pretreated cellulose. Int J Biol Macromol 2023:125053. [PMID: 37244329 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a simple and scalable mechanical pretreatment was evaluated as means to increase the cellulose accessibility of cellulose fibers, with the aim of improving the efficiency of enzymatic reactions for the production of cellulose nanoparticles (CNs). In addition, the effects of enzyme type (endoglucanase - EG, endoxylanase - EX, and a cellulase preparation - CB), composition ratio (0-200UEG:0-200UEX or EG, EX, and CB alone), and loading (0 U-200 U) were investigated in relation to CN yield, morphology, and properties. The combination of mechanical pretreatment and specific conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis substantially improved CN production yield, reaching up to 83 %. The production of rod-like or spherical nanoparticles and their chemical composition were highly dependent on the type of enzyme, composition ratio, and loading. However, these enzymatic conditions minimally affected the crystallinity index (approximately 80 %) and thermal stability (Tmax within 330-355 °C). Collectively, these results demonstrate that mechanical pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis under specific conditions is a suitable method to produce nanocellulose with a high yield and tunable properties such as purity, rod-like or spherical forms, high thermal stability, and high crystallinity. Therefore, this production route is a promising approach to produce tailored CNs with the potential to offer superior performance in a variety of sophisticated applications, including, but not limited to, wound dressings, drug delivery, thermoplastic composites, 3D (bio)printing, and smart packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella K R Dias
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Universidade de São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Bruna K Lacerda
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Universidade de São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Valdeir Arantes
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Universidade de São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil.
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5
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Ebrahimi R, Fathi M, Ghoddusi HB. Nanoencapsulation of oregano essential oil using cellulose nanocrystals extracted from hazelnut shell to enhance shelf life of fruits: Case study: Pears. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 242:124704. [PMID: 37146853 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the potential application of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from an agricultural waste for encapsulation of oregano essential oil (OEO) and subsequently their use for coating to improve the shelf life of pears as a model. By hydrolyzing hazelnut shell cellulose under the optimum conditions, high crystalline CNCs with a zeta potential of -67.8 ± 4.4 mV and a diameter of 157 ± 10 nm were produced. Different concentrations of OEO (10-50 % w/w) were incorporated into CNCs and characterized using FTIR, XRD, SEM and TEM. OEO containing 50 % CNC with the highest EE and LC was selected for coating. Pears were coated with gluten containing 0.5, 1.5 and 2 % encapsulated OEO (EOEO) and pure OEO and stored for 28 days. Physicochemical, microbial and sensory properties of the pears were examined. Microbial analysis showed that EOEO2% was more effective in controlling microbial growth than controls and pure OEO, and a 1.09 Log reduction in bacterial count was recorded on day 28 of storage when compared to control. It was concluded that CNCs produced from an agricultural waste and loaded on an essential oil could be used to extend the shelf life of pear and potentially other fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reyhaneh Ebrahimi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran
| | - Milad Fathi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran.
| | - Hamid B Ghoddusi
- Microbiology Research Unit (MRU), School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, UK
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6
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Chen A, Li X, Han W. Construction of spherical cellulose nanocrystals synergized with graphene oxide to stabilize Pickering emulsions. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 242:124499. [PMID: 37080402 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we prepared spherical cellulose nanocrystals (S-CNCs) and stabilized n-hexadecane Pickering emulsions in conjunction with graphene oxide (GO), exploring the interaction between S-CNCs and GO in the emulsions. Both S-CNCs and GO are amphiphilic and synergistically stabilize Pickering emulsions by adhering to the surface of oil droplets and within the emulsion space through hydrogen bonding. GO's two-dimensional sheets assemble into a 3D network structure, further improving the stability of Pickering emulsions. Consequently, the stability of Pickering emulsions can be adjusted by altering the S-CNCs/GO ratio, modifying the spatial distribution relationship of stabilizers in the emulsions. At an S-CNCs concentration of 1 g/L and a GO concentration of 3 g/L, the Pickering emulsion demonstrated excellent stability and exhibited no delamination after 31 days of storage. Thus, the S-CNCs/GO combination serves as an effective Pickering emulsion stabilizer, utilizing the synergistic effect between the two components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anxiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China; State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China
| | - Xia Li
- Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China; State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China.
| | - Wenjia Han
- Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China; State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan 250353, China.
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7
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Jirathampinyo S, Chumchoochart W, Tinoi J. Integrated Biobased Processes for Nanocellulose Preparation from Rice Straw Cellulose. Processes (Basel) 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/pr11041006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
High-potential nanomaterials were derived from rice straw using the integrated biobased processes of enzymatic hydrolysis with green organic acid hydrolysis assisted with ultrasonication pretreatment. The optimization condition of nanocellulose preparation by enzymatic hydrolysis via central composite design (CCD) achieved a maximum nanocellulose content of 32.37 ± 0.47% using a cellulase concentration of 107.06 U/mL and 0.13% (w/w) of rice straw cellulose. The ultrasonication-assisted pretreatment prior to enzymatic hydrolysis improved nanocellulose preparation to 52.28 ± 1.55%. Integration with oxalic acid hydrolysis increased the nanocellulose content to 64.99 ± 0.16%. Granular nanocellulose was obtained and consisted of a 105–825 nm nanosize with a zeta potential value of −34.5 mV, and nanocellulose suspension showed high stability without aggregation. In addition, the remaining rice straw cellulose after oxalic acid was microcrystalline nanocellulose. All prepared nanocellulose represented a functional group as original cellulose but had a low crystallinity index (CrI) of 15.68% that could be classified as amorphous nanocellulose. Based on their characteristics, all nanocellose could be further applied in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Moreover, the results indicated that the rice straw could be an alternative non-edible cellulose source for preparing potential nanocellulose via a controlled hydrolysis process.
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8
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Zhu P, Feng L, Ding Z, Bai X. Preparation of Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals from Microcrystalline Cellulose by Mixed Acid Hydrolysis with Different Pretreatment Routes. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810764. [PMID: 36142690 PMCID: PMC9502823 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Spherical cellulose nanocrystal (CNC), as a high value cellulose derivative, shows an excellent application potential in biomedicine, food packaging, energy storage, and many other fields due to its special structure. CNC is usually prepared by the mixed acid hydrolysis method from numerous cellulose raw materials. However, the pretreatment route in preparing spherical CNC from cellulose fiber is still used when choosing microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) as the raw material, which is not rigorous and economical. In this work, pretreatment effects on the properties of spherical CNC produced from MCC by mixed acid hydrolysis were systematically studied. Firstly, the necessity of the swelling process in pretreatment was examined. Secondly, the form effects of pretreated MCC (slurry or powder form) before acid hydrolysis in the preparation of spherical CNC were carefully investigated. The results show that the swelling process is not indispensable. Furthermore, the form of pretreated MCC also has a certain influence on the morphology, crystallinity, and thermal stability of spherical CNC. Thus, spherical CNC with different properties can be economically prepared from MCC by selecting different pretreatment routes through mixed acid hydrolysis.
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9
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Dias IKR, Siqueira GA, Arantes V. Xylanase increases the selectivity of the enzymatic hydrolysis with endoglucanase to produce cellulose nanocrystals with improved properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 220:589-600. [PMID: 35963352 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Enzyme-mediated isolation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is a promising environment friendly method with expected lower capital and operating expenditures compared to traditional processes. However, it is still poorly understood. In this study, an endoxylanase was applied as accessory enzyme to assess its potential to increase the selectivity of an endoglucanase during cellulose hydrolysis to isolate CNCs with improved properties. Only combinations of the enzymes with xylanase activity equal to or higher than the endoglucanase activity resulted in CNCs with improved properties (i.e., crystallinity, thermostability, uniformity, suspension stability and aspect ratio). The beneficial effects of the accessory enzyme are related to its hydrolytic (xylan and cellulose hydrolysis) and non-hydrolytic action (swelling of cellulose fibers and fiber porosity) and on the ratio of the enzymes, which in turn allows to tailor the properties of the CNCs. In conclusion, compared to the traditional sulfuric acid hydrolysis method, accessory enzymes help to isolate cellulose nanomaterials with improved and customized (sizes, aspect ratio and morphology) properties that may allow for new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Karoline Ribeiro Dias
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Germano Andrade Siqueira
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Valdeir Arantes
- Nanobiotechnology and Bioproducts Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Lorena School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil.
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10
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Fabrication of Janus-type nanocomposites from cellulose nanocrystals for self-healing hydrogels' flexible sensors. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 216:112554. [PMID: 35580460 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Janus bio-nanomaterials have great application potential in functional solid surfactants, probes and flexible sensors. In this manuscript, the sustainable Janus cellulose nanocrystals-type (CNCs-type) nanomaterials were prepared by Pickering emulsion template method. The asymmetric functionalism of Janus nanorods was realized by asymmetrically grafting polypyrrole (PPy) and polydopamine (PDA) onto different sides of CNCs (Janus CNCs-PPy /PDA (JCNs)). JCNs was successfully applied to self-healing nanocomposite hydrogels and further applied to the development of flexible sensors. The self-healing efficiency of nanocomposite hydrogels was 87.2%, and the stress and strain reached 3.50 MPa and 453.45%, respectively. It is worth noting that flexible sensors have been widely used in the field of wearable electronic sensing for real-time monitoring of human movement due to their high sensitivity (gauge factor (GF) = 9.9) and fast response time (260 ms).
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11
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Preparation and separation of pure spherical cellulose nanocrystals from microcrystalline cellulose by complex enzymatic hydrolysis. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 202:1-10. [PMID: 35031311 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Spherical cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), as a new and high value cellulose derivative, shows excellent application potential in many fields due to its special structure. The accurate and effective separation of pure spherical CNCs lays foundation for its further application. In this work, spherical CNCs were prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) with complex enzymes. In order to determine the optimal separation conditions of pure spherical CNCs, turbidity and Zeta potential were used to analyze the influence of pH on system stability, and the size and morphology of samples were characterized by DLS, AFM and SEM. The results showed that spherical CNCs with particle size of 24-76 nm can be separated from large particles with the help of alkali (pH = 9) dispersion and centrifugation speed of 3000 rpm. After three acid (pH = 4) washes, pure spherical CNCs were extracted and reducing sugars and enzyme proteins were removed. Compared with MCC, spherical CNCs had lower crystallinity but stronger reactivity and higher heat transfer. DTG results showed that the maximum weight loss temperature of spherical CNCs prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis was 309 °C.
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12
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Hemicellulose and Nano/Microfibrils Improving the Pliability and Hydrophobic Properties of Cellulose Film by Interstitial Filling and Forming Micro/Nanostructure. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14071297. [PMID: 35406171 PMCID: PMC9003512 DOI: 10.3390/polym14071297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, nano/microfibrils were applied to enhance the mechanical and hydrophobic properties of the sugarcane bagasse fiber films. The successful preparation of nano/microfibrils was confirmed by scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), fiber length analyzer (FLA), and ion chromatography (IC). The transparency, morphology, mechanical and hydrophobic properties of the cellulose films were evaluated. The results show that the nanoparticle was formed by the hemicellulose diffusing on the surface of the cellulose and agglomerating in the film-forming process at 40 °C. The elastic modulus of the cellulose film was as high as 4140.60 MPa, and the water contact angle was increased to 113°. The micro/nanostructures were formed due to hemicellulose adsorption on nano/microfilament surfaces. The hydrophobicity of the films was improved. The directional crystallization of nano/microfibrous molecules was found. Cellulose films with a high elastic modulus and high elasticity were obtained. It provides theoretical support for the preparation of high-performance cellulose film.
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13
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Karnaouri A, Chorozian K, Zouraris D, Karantonis A, Topakas E, Rova U, Christakopoulos P. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases as powerful tools in enzymatically assisted preparation of nano-scaled cellulose from lignocellulose: A review. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 345:126491. [PMID: 34871721 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nanocellulose, either in the form of fibers or crystals, constitutes a renewable, biobased, biocompatible material with advantageous mechanical properties that can be isolated from lignocellulosic biomass. Enzyme-assisted isolation of nanocellulose is an attractive, environmentally friendly approach that leads to products of higher quality compared to their chemically prepared counterparts. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are enzymes that oxidatively cleave the β-1,4-glycosidic bond of polysaccharides upon activation of O2 or H2O2 and presence of an electron donor. Their use for treatment of cellulose fibers towards the preparation of nano-scaled cellulose is related to the ability of LPMOs to create nicking points on the fiber surface, thus facilitating fiber disruption and separation. The aim of this review is to describe the mode of action of LPMOs on cellulose fibers towards the isolation of nanostructures, thus highlighting their great potential for the production of nanocellulose as a novel value added product from lignocellulose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthi Karnaouri
- Industrial Biotechnology & Biocatalysis Group, Biotechnology Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou Str., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece; Biochemical Process Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden.
| | - Koar Chorozian
- Industrial Biotechnology & Biocatalysis Group, Biotechnology Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou Str., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Zouraris
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Applied Electrochemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Antonis Karantonis
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Applied Electrochemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelos Topakas
- Industrial Biotechnology & Biocatalysis Group, Biotechnology Lab, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou Str., Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Ulrika Rova
- Biochemical Process Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
| | - Paul Christakopoulos
- Biochemical Process Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
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14
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Tian W, Gao X, Zhang J, Yu J, Zhang J. Cellulose nanosphere: Preparation and applications of the novel nanocellulose. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 277:118863. [PMID: 34893268 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Over the past few years, cellulose nanosphere (CNS) has gained growing attention and rapid development. As a new type of nanocellulose materials, CNS can be prepared from native cellulose by using methods which have been adopted extensively to prepare the well-known nanocelluloses, i.e., cellulose nanofiber and cellulose nanocrystal. The particular interest is that the regenerated cellulose and mercerized cellulose can also be used as important feedstocks to produce CNS. In this review, the preparation methods of CNS are described and discussed, via both top-down processes, including chemical, mechanical, and enzymolysis ones, and bottom-up processes by using various cellulose I and II starting materials. This review also highlights the researches relative to cellulose composite nanospheres, and summarizes the applications of spherical cellulose-based nanoparticles. Finally, the future challenges and opportunities of CNS are prospected in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiguo Tian
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xuexin Gao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinming Zhang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jian Yu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Jun Zhang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Engineering Plastics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Huang C, Yu H, Abdalkarim SYH, Li Y, Chen X, Yang X, Zhou Y, Zhang L. A comprehensive investigation on cellulose nanocrystals with different crystal structures from cotton via an efficient route. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 276:118766. [PMID: 34823786 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structures of cellulose nanomaterials play an important role in their morphologies and applications, however, there was still lacking systematic research on preparing various crystalline allomorphs of cellulose nanocrystals with high thermal stability. Herein, the efficient synthesis route was presented to design various crystalline allomorphs of cellulose from cotton. And then, cellulose nanocrystals with different crystal structures (CNC-I, CNC-II, CNC-IIIII, CNC-IVII) were prepared by hydrogen peroxide hydrolysis of resultant cellulose. Overall, needle-like CNC-I (length of 180 ± 25 nm, diameter of 12 ± 2 nm), near-spherical CNC-II (diameter of 101 ± 12 nm), and spherical CNC-IIIII (diameter of 22 ± 3 nm) and CNC-IVII (diameter of 21 ± 2 nm) all exhibited remarkable dispersibility and thermal stability (Tmax > 357 °C). This work provides a simple and low-cost synthesis route for various crystalline allomorphs of CNCs with high thermal stability from the same raw materials (cotton).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengling Huang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Houyong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China.
| | - Somia Yassin Hussain Abdalkarim
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Yingzhan Li
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China.
| | - Xiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xiaogang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Xiasha Higher Education Park Avenue 2 No.928, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Lianyang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Clean Dyeing and Finishing Technology of Zhejiang Province, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China
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16
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Carvalho JPF, Silva ACQ, Silvestre AJD, Freire CSR, Vilela C. Spherical Cellulose Micro and Nanoparticles: A Review of Recent Developments and Applications. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:2744. [PMID: 34685185 PMCID: PMC8537411 DOI: 10.3390/nano11102744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer, is a versatile polysaccharide that is being exploited to manufacture innovative blends, composites, and hybrid materials in the form of membranes, films, coatings, hydrogels, and foams, as well as particles at the micro and nano scales. The application fields of cellulose micro and nanoparticles run the gamut from medicine, biology, and environment to electronics and energy. In fact, the number of studies dealing with sphere-shaped micro and nanoparticles based exclusively on cellulose (or its derivatives) or cellulose in combination with other molecules and macromolecules has been steadily increasing in the last five years. Hence, there is a clear need for an up-to-date narrative that gathers the latest advances on this research topic. So, the aim of this review is to portray some of the most recent and relevant developments on the use of cellulose to produce spherical micro- and nano-sized particles. An attempt was made to illustrate the present state of affairs in terms of the go-to strategies (e.g., emulsification processes, nanoprecipitation, microfluidics, and other assembly approaches) for the generation of sphere-shaped particles of cellulose and derivatives thereof. A concise description of the application fields of these cellulose-based spherical micro and nanoparticles is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Carla Vilela
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (J.P.F.C.); (A.C.Q.S.); (A.J.D.S.); (C.S.R.F.)
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17
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Zhang Q, Lu Z, Su C, Feng Z, Wang H, Yu J, Su W. High yielding, one-step mechano-enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to cellulose nanocrystals without bulk solvent. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 331:125015. [PMID: 33812135 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Traditional methods of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are limited due to the low enzymatic efficiency and large amount of waste liquid. The purpose of this study is to improve the yield and production efficiency of CNCs by enzymatic hydrolysis. A one-step mechano-enzymatic hydrolysis method was developed by utilizing the synergy of wet grinding and enzymatic hydrolysis reaction to efficiently prepare CNCs. Under the optimal reaction conditions, the maximum CNCs yield of 49.3% was achieved with higher thermal stability and crystallinity index of 76.7%. Mechano-enzymatic hydrolysis followed the first order pseudo-kinetics, and fractal kinetics demonstrated that mechanical force of rotation speed affected the fractal dimensions and binding ability between substrate and enzyme. This study provides an alternative method to prepare CNCs, which can significantly avoid the use of bulk water, improve the production efficiency of CNCs and thus lower the production cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qihong Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Zhaohui Lu
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Chen Su
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Zongmiao Feng
- Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Hui Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Jingbo Yu
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Weike Su
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China; Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China.
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18
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Wu XQ, Liu PD, Liu Q, Xu SY, Zhang YC, Xu WR, Liu GD. Production of cellulose nanofibrils and films from elephant grass using deep eutectic solvents and a solid acid catalyst. RSC Adv 2021; 11:14071-14078. [PMID: 35423938 PMCID: PMC8697674 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra02259h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A new strategy was developed to produce cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and films from raw elephant grass using deep eutectic solvents and a recyclable spent coffee-derived solid acid (SC-SO3H) catalyst with assistance of ultrasonic disintegration and a suction filtration film forming method. The effects of a solid acid and reused solid acid were comprehensively studied by comparing with catalyst-free conditions and using sulfuric acid as the catalyst. The CNF fibers obtained from this novel SC-SO3H catalyst method showed the longest fiber length. The corresponding films achieved the strongest tensile strength of 79.8 MPa and the elongation at break of 13.6%, and best thermostability. In addition, the performance of CNFs and films prepared by the fourth recovered SC-SO3H-4 catalyst was close to that obtained with the first use. The SC-SO3H could be reused by a simple decantation method, meaning this novel method has the potential for green and sustainable preparation of CNFs and films. A new strategy was developed to produce cellulose nanofibrils and films from elephant grass using deep eutectic solvents and a recyclable solid acid catalyst with assistance of ultrasonic disintegration and a suction filtration film forming method.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Que Wu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Resource Utilization and Environmental Protection, School of Science, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University Haikou 570228 PR China
| | - Pan-Dao Liu
- Institute of Tropical Crop Genetic Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences Haikou 571101 PR China
| | - Qun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Resource Utilization and Environmental Protection, School of Science, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University Haikou 570228 PR China
| | - Shu-Ying Xu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Resource Utilization and Environmental Protection, School of Science, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University Haikou 570228 PR China
| | - Yu-Cang Zhang
- College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University Xiamen 361021 PR China
| | - Wen-Rong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials of Tropical Island Resources of Ministry of Education, Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Fine Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Resource Utilization and Environmental Protection, School of Science, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hainan University Haikou 570228 PR China
| | - Guo-Dao Liu
- Institute of Tropical Crop Genetic Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agriculture Sciences Haikou 571101 PR China
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19
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Sun L, Zhang X, Liu H, Liu K, Du H, Kumar A, Sharma G, Si C. Recent Advances in Hydrophobic Modification of Nanocellulose. CURR ORG CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272824999201210191041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
As a kind of renewable nanomaterial, nanocellulose displays excellent performances
and exhibits wide application potentials. In general, nanocellulose has strong hydrophilicity
due to the presence of abundant hydroxyl groups or the hydrophilic functional groups
introduced during the preparation process. Although these hydrophilic groups benefit the
nanocellulose with great application potential that is used in aqueous media (e.g., rheology
modifier, hydrogels), they do hinder the performance of nanocellulose used as reinforcing
agents for hydrophobic polymers and reduce the stability of the self-assembled nanostructure
(e.g., nanopaper, aerogel) in a high-humidity environment. Thus, this review aims to summarize
recent advances in the hydrophobic modification of nanocellulose, mainly in three aspects:
physical adsorption, surface chemical modification (e.g., silylation, alkanoylation, esterification),
and polymer graft copolymerization. In addition, the current limitations and future prospects of hydrophobic
modification of nanocellulose are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Xiaoyi Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Huayu Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Kun Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Haishun Du
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Amit Kumar
- School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan 173212, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Gaurav Sharma
- School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan 173212, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Chuanling Si
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
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20
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Michelin M, Gomes DG, Romaní A, Polizeli MDLTM, Teixeira JA. Nanocellulose Production: Exploring the Enzymatic Route and Residues of Pulp and Paper Industry. Molecules 2020; 25:E3411. [PMID: 32731405 PMCID: PMC7436152 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25153411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing environmental and sustainability concerns, caused by current population growth, has promoted a raising utilization of renewable bio-resources for the production of materials and energy. Recently, nanocellulose (NC) has been receiving great attention due to its many attractive features such as non-toxic nature, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, associated with its mechanical properties and those related to its nanoscale, emerging as a promising material in many sectors, namely packaging, regenerative medicine, and electronics, among others. Nanofibers and nanocrystals, derived from cellulose sources, have been mainly produced by mechanical and chemical treatments; however, the use of cellulases to obtain NC attracted much attention due to their environmentally friendly character. This review presents an overview of general concepts in NC production. Especial emphasis is given to enzymatic hydrolysis processes using cellulases and the utilization of pulp and paper industry residues. Integrated process for the production of NC and other high-value products through enzymatic hydrolysis is also approached. Major challenges found in this context are discussed along with its properties, potential application, and future perspectives of the use of enzymatic hydrolysis as a pretreatment in the scale-up of NC production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Michelin
- CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (M.M.); (A.R.); (J.A.T.)
| | - Daniel G. Gomes
- CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (M.M.); (A.R.); (J.A.T.)
| | - Aloia Romaní
- CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (M.M.); (A.R.); (J.A.T.)
| | - Maria de Lourdes T. M. Polizeli
- Department of Biology, Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto SP 14040-901, Brazil;
| | - José A. Teixeira
- CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (M.M.); (A.R.); (J.A.T.)
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