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The YfkO Nitroreductase from Bacillus Licheniformis on Gold-Coated Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles: Towards a Novel Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy Approach. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13040517. [PMID: 33918536 PMCID: PMC8070144 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial nitroreductase NfnB has been the focus of a great deal of research for its use in directed enzyme prodrug therapy in combination with the nitroreductase prodrug CB1954 with this combination of enzyme and prodrug even entering clinical trials. Despite some promising results, there are major limitations to this research, such as the fact that the lowest reported Km for this enzyme far exceeds the maximum dosage of CB1954. Due to these limitations, new enzymes are now being investigated for their potential use in directed enzyme prodrug therapy. One such enzyme that has proved promising is the YfkO nitroreductase from Bacillus Licheniformis. Upon investigation, the YfkO nitroreductase was shown to have a much lower Km (below the maximum dosage) than that of NfnB as well as the fact that when reacting with the prodrug it produces a much more favourable ratio of enzymatic products than NfnB, forming more of the desired 4-hydroxylamine derivative of CB1954.
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2
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Boddu RS, Perumal O, K D. Microbial nitroreductases: A versatile tool for biomedical and environmental applications. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2020; 68:1518-1530. [PMID: 33156534 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Nitroreductases, enzymes found mostly in bacteria and also in few eukaryotes, use nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as a cofactor for their activity and metabolize an enormous list of a diverse nitro group-containing compounds. Nitroreductases that are capable of metabolizing nitroaromatic and nitro heterocyclic compounds have drawn great attention in recent years owing to their biotechnological, biomedical, environmental, and human impact. These enzymes attracted medicinal chemists and pharmacologists because of their prodrug selectivity for activation/reduction of nitro compounds that wipe out pathogens/cancer cells, leaving the host/normal cells unharmed. It is applied in diverse fields of study like prodrug activation in treating cancer and leishmaniasis, designing fluorescent probes for hypoxia detection, cell imaging, ablation of specific cell types, biodegradation of nitro-pollutants, and interpretation of mutagenicity of nitro compounds. Keeping in view the immense prospects of these enzymes and a large number of research contributions in this area, the present review encompasses the enzymatic reaction mechanism, their role in antibiotic resistance, hypoxia sensing, cell imaging, cancer therapy, reduction of recalcitrant nitro chemicals, enzyme variants, and their specificity to substrates, reaction products, and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Sree Boddu
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India
| | - Onkara Perumal
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India
| | - Divakar K
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur, India
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3
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Anderson SD, Hobbs RJ, Gwenin VV, Ball P, Bennie LA, Coulter JA, Gwenin CD. Cell-Penetrating Peptides as a Tool for the Cellular Uptake of a Genetically Modified Nitroreductase for use in Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy. J Funct Biomater 2019; 10:E45. [PMID: 31581475 PMCID: PMC6963571 DOI: 10.3390/jfb10040045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Directed enzyme prodrug therapy (DEPT) involves the delivery of a prodrug-activating enzyme to a solid tumour site, followed by the subsequent activation of an administered prodrug. One of the most studied enzyme-prodrug combinations is the nitroreductase from Escherichia coli (NfnB) with the prodrug CB1954 [5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitro-benzamide]. One of the major issues faced by DEPT is the ability to successfully internalize the enzyme into the target cells. NfnB has previously been genetically modified to contain cysteine residues (NfnB-Cys) which bind to gold nanoparticles for a novel DEPT therapy called magnetic nanoparticle directed enzyme prodrug therapy (MNDEPT). One cellular internalisation method is the use of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), which aid cellular internalization of cargo. Here the cell-penetrating peptides: HR9 and Pep-1 were tested for their ability to conjugate with NfnB-Cys. The conjugates were further tested for their potential use in MNDEPT, as well as conjugating with the delivery vector intended for use in MNDEPT and tested for the vectors capability to penetrate into cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Anderson
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
| | - Robert J Hobbs
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
| | - Vanessa V Gwenin
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
| | - Patrick Ball
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
| | - Lindsey A Bennie
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, BT7 1NN Belfast, UK.
| | | | - Chris D Gwenin
- School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
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4
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McGoldrick LK, Weiss EA, Halámek J. Symmetric-Key Encryption Based on Bioaffinity Interactions. ACS Synth Biol 2019; 8:1655-1662. [PMID: 31287664 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.9b00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The research presented here shows a bridge between biochemistry and cryptography. Enzyme-based assays were used in a new methodology linked to ciphers and cipher systems. Three separate enzyme assays, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (E.C. 3.1.3.1), lysozyme (E.C. 3.2.1.17), and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) (E.C. 1.11.1.7), were used to create a cipher key in order to encrypt a message. By choosing certain parameters for one's experiment that are performed in the same way as a person receiving the message, correct encryption and decryption keys would be produced, resulting in a correct encryption and decryption of a message. It is imperative that both parties perform the same experiment under the same conditions in order to correctly interpret the message. Bioaffinity-based assays, in particular enzymatic assays, provide a specific, yet flexible mechanism to use for the encryption of messages. Because of the nature of this process there are a multitude of sets of parameters that may be chosen, each of which would result in a different key being produced, heightening the security and the robustness of the method. This paper shows that by using this concept of forming encryption keys using a bioaffinity-based approach, one is able to properly encrypt and decrypt a message, which could be viable for other biochemically based techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif K. McGoldrick
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222, United States
| | - Elizabeth A. Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222, United States
| | - Jan Halámek
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222, United States
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5
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Bull DS, Kienle DF, Chaparro Sosa AF, Nelson N, Roy S, Cha JN, Schwartz DK, Kaar JL, Goodwin AP. Surface-Templated Nanobubbles Protect Proteins from Surface-Mediated Denaturation. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:2641-2647. [PMID: 31067058 PMCID: PMC8051143 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b00806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, we report that surface-bound nanobubbles reduce protein denaturation on methylated glass by irreversible protein shell formation. Single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence (SM-TIRF) microscopy was combined with intramolecular Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to study the conformational dynamics of nitroreductase (NfsB) on nanobubble-laden methylated glass surfaces, using reflection brightfield microscopy to register nanobubble locations with NfsB adsorption. First, NfsB adsorbed irreversibly to nanobubbles with no apparent desorption after 5 h. Moreover, virtually all (96%) of the NfsB molecules that interacted with nanobubbles remained folded, whereas less than 50% of NfsB molecules remained folded in the absence of nanobubbles on unmodified silica or methylated glass surfaces. This trend was confirmed by ensemble-average fluorometer TIRF experiments. We hypothesize that nanobubbles reduce protein damage by passivating strongly denaturing topographical surface defects. Thus, nanobubble stabilization on surfaces may have important implications for antifouling surfaces and improving therapeutic protein storage.
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Anderson SD, Gwenin VV, Gwenin CD. Magnetic Functionalized Nanoparticles for Biomedical, Drug Delivery and Imaging Applications. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2019; 14:188. [PMID: 31147786 PMCID: PMC6542970 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-019-3019-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Medicine is constantly looking for new and improved treatments for diseases, which need to have a high efficacy and be cost-effective, creating a large demand on scientific research to discover such new treatments. One important aspect of any treatment is the ability to be able to target only the illness and not cause harm to another healthy part of the body. For this reason, metallic nanoparticles have been and are currently being extensively researched for their possible medical uses, including medical imaging, antibacterial and antiviral applications. Superparamagnetic metal nanoparticles possess properties that allow them to be directed around the body with a magnetic field or directed to a magnetic implant, which opens up the potential to conjugate various bio-cargos to the nanoparticles that could then be directed for treatment in the body. Here we report on some of the current bio-medical applications of various metal nanoparticles, including single metal nanoparticles, functionalized metal nanoparticles, and core-shell metal nanoparticles using a core of Fe3O4 as well as synthesis methods of these core-shell nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Anderson
- School of Natural Sciences, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Vanessa V Gwenin
- School of Natural Sciences, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Christopher D Gwenin
- School of Natural Sciences, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK.
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7
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Amperometric detection of the herbicide mesotrione based on competitive reactions at nitroreductase@layered double hydroxide bioelectrode. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2019.01.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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8
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Ball P, Thompson E, Anderson S, Gwenin V, Gwenin C. Time dependent HPLC analysis of the product ratio of enzymatically reduced prodrug CB1954 by a modified and immobilised nitroreductase. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 127:217-224. [PMID: 30414836 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Directed enzyme prodrug therapy is a chemotherapy strategy that utilises prodrug-activating enzymes to activate prodrugs at the tumour location, thus reducing off-target effects. The most commonly investigated enzyme for use with the CB1954 prodrug is the NfnB nitroreductase from E. coli. Literature states that CB1954 is reduced by NfnB at the 2- or 4-position at a 1:1 ratio; deviation from this ratio has been observed in the literature, but not further investigated. The kinetic parameters for the genetically-modified enzymes; NfnB-his, NfnB-cys and AuNP-NfnB-cys were assessed and HPLC analysis was used to determine the hydroxylamine product ratios formed when reacted with CB1954. Time-dependent HPLC studies were carried out to assess how this ratio changes over time. It was shown that the hydroxylamine ratio formed by the reduction of CB1954 by a nitroreductase changes over time and that this change in ratio relates directly to the kinetics of the reaction. Thus, the hydroxylamine ratio measured using HPLC at a given time point was not a true indication of the preference of the nitroreductase enzymes during catalysis. These results question how nitroreductases are evaluated in terms of the hydroxylamine ratio and it is suspected that this phenomenon may also apply to other enzyme/prodrug combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Ball
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Chemistry Bangor University, LL57 2DG, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Emma Thompson
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Chemistry Bangor University, LL57 2DG, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Simon Anderson
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Chemistry Bangor University, LL57 2DG, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Vanessa Gwenin
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Chemistry Bangor University, LL57 2DG, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Chris Gwenin
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Chemistry Bangor University, LL57 2DG, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
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9
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Gwenin VV, Poornima P, Halliwell J, Ball P, Robinson G, Gwenin CD. Identification of novel nitroreductases from Bacillus cereus and their interaction with the CB1954 prodrug. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 98:392-402. [PMID: 26415543 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Directed enzyme prodrug therapy is a form of cancer chemotherapy in which bacterial prodrug-activating enzymes, or their encoding genes, are directed to the tumour before administration of a prodrug. The prodrug can then be activated into a toxic drug at the tumour site, reducing off-target effects. The bacterial nitroreductases are a class of enzymes used in this therapeutic approach and although very promising, the low turnover rate of prodrug by the most studied nitroreductase enzyme, NfnB from Escherichia coli (NfnB_Ec), is a major limit to this technology. There is a continual search for enzymes with greater efficiency, and as part of the search for more efficient bacterial nitroreductase enzymes, two novel enzymes from Bacillus cereus (strain ATCC 14579) have been identified and shown to reduce the CB1954 (5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide) prodrug to its respective 2'-and 4'-hydroxylamine products. Both enzymes shared features characteristic of the nitro-FMN-reductase superfamily including non-covalently associated FMN, requirement for the NAD(P)H cofactor, homodimeric, could be inhibited by Dicoumarol (3,3'-methylenebis(4-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one)), and displayed ping pong bi bi kinetics. Based on the biochemical characteristics and nucleotide alignment with other nitroreductase enzymes, one enzyme was named YdgI_Bc and the other YfkO_Bc. Both B. cereus enzymes had greater turnover for the CB1954 prodrug compared with NfnB_Ec, and in the presence of added NADPH cofactor, YfkO_Bc had superior cell killing ability, and produced mainly the 4'-hydroxylamine product at low prodrug concentration. The YfkO_Bc was identified as a promising candidate for future enzyme prodrug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa V Gwenin
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK
| | | | - Jennifer Halliwell
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK
| | - Patrick Ball
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK
| | - George Robinson
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK
| | - Chris D Gwenin
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG Wales, UK.
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10
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Li Z, He X, Wang Z, Yang R, Shi W, Ma H. In vivo imaging and detection of nitroreductase in zebrafish by a new near-infrared fluorescence off-on probe. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 63:112-116. [PMID: 25064818 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A new near-infrared fluorescence off-on probe is developed and applied to fluorescence imaging of nitroreductase in zebrafish in vivo. The probe is readily prepared by connecting 4-nitrobenzene as a quenching and recognizing moiety to a stable hemicyanine skeleton that can be formed via the decomposition of IR 780. The fluorescence off-on response of the probe to nitroreductase is based on the enzyme-catalyzed reduction of the 4-nitrobenzene moiety, followed by the 1,6-rearrangement-elimination and the fluorophore release. Compared with the existing nitroreductase probes, the proposed probe exhibits superior analytical performance such as near-infrared fluorescence emission over 700 nm as well as high selectivity and sensitivity, with a detection limit of 14 ng/mL. More importantly, the probe has been successfully applied to visualize the distribution of nitroreductase in living zebrafish in vivo, revealing that nitroreductase might mainly exist in zebrafish yolk sac. The superior properties of the probe make it of great potential use in other biosystems and in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xinyuan He
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Ronghua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Wen Shi
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Huimin Ma
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
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11
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Yáñez-Sedeño P, Agüí L, Villalonga R, Pingarrón JM. Biosensors in forensic analysis. A review. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 823:1-19. [PMID: 24746348 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 03/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Forensic analysis is an important branch of modern Analytical Chemistry with many legal and socially relevant implications. Biosensors can play an important role as efficient tools in this field considering their well known advantages of sensitivity, selectivity, easy functioning, affordability and capability of miniaturization and automation. This article reviews the latest advances in the use of biosensors for forensic analysis. The different methodologies for the transduction of the produced biological events are considered and the applications to forensic toxicological analysis, classified by the nature of the target analytes, as well as those related with chemical and biological weapons critically commented. The article provides several Tables where the more relevant analytical characteristics of the selected reported methods are gathered.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Yáñez-Sedeño
- University Complutense, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid 28040, Spain.
| | - L Agüí
- University Complutense, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - R Villalonga
- University Complutense, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid 28040, Spain
| | - J M Pingarrón
- University Complutense, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid 28040, Spain
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12
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Li Y, Zhang J, Huang X, Wang T. Construction and direct electrochemistry of orientation controlled laccase electrode. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 446:201-5. [PMID: 24583131 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A laccase has multiple redox centres. Chemisorption of laccases on a gold electrode through a polypeptide tag introduced at the protein surface provides an isotropic orientation of laccases on the Au surface, which allows the orientation dependent study of the direct electrochemistry of laccase. In this paper, using genetic engineering technology, two forms of recombinant laccase which has Cys-6×His tag at the N or C terminus were generated. Via the Au-S linkage, the recombinant laccase was assembled orientationally on gold electrode. A direct electron transfer and a bioelectrocatalytic activity toward oxygen reduction were observed on the two orientation controlled laccase electrodes, but their electrochemical behaviors were found to be quite different. The orientation of laccase on the gold electrode affects both the electron transfer pathway and the electron transfer efficiency of O2 reduction. The present study is helpful not only to the in-depth understanding of the direct electrochemistry of laccase, but also to the development of laccase-based biofuel cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- Key Laboratory of Colloid & Interface Chemistry of the Education Ministry of China, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, PR China
| | - Jiwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology of China, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, PR China
| | - Xirong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Colloid & Interface Chemistry of the Education Ministry of China, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology of China, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, PR China.
| | - Tianhong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology of China, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, PR China.
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13
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Halliwell J, Gwenin C. A label free colorimetric assay for the detection of active botulinum neurotoxin type A by SNAP-25 conjugated colloidal gold. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:1381-91. [PMID: 23925142 PMCID: PMC3760041 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5081381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins are one of the most potent toxins known to man. Current methods of detection involve the quantification of the toxin but do not take into account the percentage of the toxin that is active. At present the assay used for monitoring the activity of the toxin is the mouse bioassay, which is lengthy and has ethical issues due to the use of live animals. This report demonstrates a novel assay that utilises the endopeptidase activity of the toxin to detect Botulinum neurotoxin in a pharmaceutical sample. The cleaving of SNAP-25 is monitored via UV-Visible spectroscopy with a limit of detection of 373 fg/mL and has been further developed into a high throughput method using a microplate reader detecting down to 600 fg/mL of active toxin. The results show clear differences between the toxin product and the placebo, which contains the pharmaceutical excipients human serum albumin and lactose, showing that the assay detects the active form of the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher Gwenin
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel: +44-1248-383-741; Fax: +44-1248-370-528
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14
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Immobilization strategies to develop enzymatic biosensors. Biotechnol Adv 2012; 30:489-511. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 723] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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15
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Gwenin VV, Gwenin CD, Kalaji M. Colloidal gold modified with a genetically engineered nitroreductase: toward a novel enzyme delivery system for cancer prodrug therapy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:14300-7. [PMID: 22014024 DOI: 10.1021/la202951p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Directed enzyme prodrug therapy is an extensive area of research in cancer chemotherapy. Although very promising, the current directed approaches are still hampered by inefficient enzyme expression and tumor targeting. This work investigates the viability of using metal nanoparticles as a novel delivery vehicle for prodrug-activating enzymes. Using genetically incorporated amino acid sequences, a nitroreductase from E. coli was directly immobilized onto a 50 nm gold colloid, as confirmed by gel electrophoresis, DLS, and UV-vis spectroscopy. The resulting conjugates showed excellent stability in changing proton and sodium chloride environments, including PBS at 37 °C. Remarkably, the immobilized nitroreductase retained more than 99% activity to the CB1954 prodrug without the need for stabilizers. This work provides the foundation for attaching prodrug-activating enzymes to metal nanoparticles for future use in directed enzyme prodrug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa V Gwenin
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2DG, Wales, United Kingdom
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16
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Huang HC, Wang KL, Huang ST, Lin HY, Lin CM. Development of a sensitive long-wavelength fluorogenic probe for nitroreductase: a new fluorimetric indictor for analyte determination by dehydrogenase-coupled biosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 26:3511-6. [PMID: 21398106 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Revised: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nitroreductase (NTR) is a flavin-containing enzyme that uses NADH as the electron source to reduce nitroaromatic compounds to the corresponding amines. Previous studies have shown that nitroreductase-targeted latent fluorophores exhibit low solubility in the aqueous media and fluoresce at lower wavelengths upon uncloaking, thus limiting their effective applications. Here, we have prepared a new switch-on long-wavelength latent fluorogenic substrate, NTRLF (4), for NTR. In the presence of NADH, NTR catalyzes the reduction of the nitroaromatic moiety in NTRLF (4), followed by the cascade reaction, 1,6-rearrangement-elimination reaction, cyclic urea formation, and concomitant ejects a long-wavelength fluorescence coumarin (8). However, this reaction was inhibited in the presence of nitroaromatic analogues. The fluorescence signal generated by the cascade reaction was specific and insensitive to various reductants. Accordingly, we propose that NTRLF and NTR in the presences of NADH constitute a useful switch-off high-throughput fluorescence sensor for screening nitroaromatic compounds. Furthermore, NTRLF in the NTR-coupled 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase assay reactions was a sensitive fluorimetric indicator for the quantitatively measurement of 3-hydroxybutyrate and propionaldehyde, respectively within micromolar range. Our novel NTRLF and NTR-coupled dehydrogenase assay platform may thus be effectively applied for the quantitative estimation of a broad range of analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hun-Chung Huang
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
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Mandler D, Kraus-Ophir S. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) for electrochemical sensing. J Solid State Electrochem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-011-1493-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Samanta D, Sarkar A. Immobilization of bio-macromolecules on self-assembled monolayers: methods and sensor applications. Chem Soc Rev 2011; 40:2567-92. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cs00056f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Hernandez K, Fernandez-Lafuente R. Control of protein immobilization: coupling immobilization and site-directed mutagenesis to improve biocatalyst or biosensor performance. Enzyme Microb Technol 2010; 48:107-22. [PMID: 22112819 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2010.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mutagenesis and immobilization are usually considered to be unrelated techniques with potential applications to improve protein properties. However, there are several reports showing that the use of site-directed mutagenesis to improve enzyme properties directly, but also how enzymes are immobilized on a support, can be a powerful tool to improve the properties of immobilized biomolecules for use as biosensors or biocatalysts. Standard immobilizations are not fully random processes, but the protein orientation may be difficult to alter. Initially, most efforts using this idea were addressed towards controlling the orientation of the enzyme on the immobilization support, in many cases to facilitate electron transfer from the support to the enzyme in redox biosensors. Usually, Cys residues are used to directly immobilize the protein on a support that contains disulfide groups or that is made from gold. There are also some examples using His in the target areas of the protein and using supports modified with immobilized metal chelates and other tags (e.g., using immobilized antibodies). Furthermore, site-directed mutagenesis to control immobilization is useful for improving the activity, the stability and even the selectivity of the immobilized protein, for example, via site-directed rigidification of selected areas of the protein. Initially, only Cys and disulfide supports were employed, but other supports with higher potential to give multipoint covalent attachment are being employed (e.g., glyoxyl or epoxy-disulfide supports). The advances in support design and the deeper knowledge of the mechanisms of enzyme-support interactions have permitted exploration of the possibilities of the coupled use of site-directed mutagenesis and immobilization in a new way. This paper intends to review some of the advances and possibilities that these coupled strategies permit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Hernandez
- Departamento de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis-CSIC, Campus UAM-CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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A kinetic analysis of three modified novel nitroreductases. Biodegradation 2010; 22:463-74. [PMID: 20862523 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-010-9418-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A kinetic comparison between three nitroreductase enzymes isolated from the genome of Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 14580 for prospective use as immobilised enzymes for explosives detection has been conducted. The genes encoding the three enzymes (yfkO [BLNfnB] encoding an NfsB-like enzyme; nfrA [BLNfrA1] and ycnD [BLNfrA2] encoding PnrA-like enzymes) have been PCR amplified from the native genome and cloned into pET-28a(+) and a modified cysteine((6))-tagged pET-28a(+) and subsequently over-expressed, purified, and biochemically characterised. The previously uncharacterised nitroreductases exhibited activity against a wide range of explosives, including cyclic nitramines. Amino acid alignments and overall structural comparisons with other nitroreductase family members suggest that the B. licheniformis enzymes are members of the NfsA-Frp/NfsB-FRase I family group. Despite the overall low amino acid identity, regions for flavin mononucleotide binding and active site residues were highly conserved.
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Lu S, Wang X, Lu Q, Hu X, Uppal N, Omenetto FG, Kaplan DL. Stabilization of enzymes in silk films. Biomacromolecules 2009; 10:1032-42. [PMID: 19323497 DOI: 10.1021/bm800956n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Material systems are needed that promote stabilization of entrained molecules, such as enzymes or therapeutic proteins, without destroying their activity. We demonstrate that the unique structure of silk fibroin protein, when assembled into the solid state, establishes an environment that is conducive to the stabilization of entrained proteins. Enzymes (glucose oxidase, lipase, and horseradish peroxidase) entrapped in these films over 10 months retained significant activity, even when stored at 37 degrees C, and in the case of glucose oxidase did not lose any activity. Further, the mode of processing of the silk protein into the films could be correlated to the stability of the enzymes. The relationship between processing and stability offers a large suite of conditions within which to optimize such stabilization processes. Overall, the techniques reported here result in materials that stabilize enzymes to an extent, without the need for cryoprotectants, emulsifiers, covalent immobilization, or other treatments. Further, these systems are amenable to optical applications and characterization, environmental distribution without refrigeration, are ingestible, and offer potential use in vivo, because silk materials are biocompatible and FDA approved, degradable with proteases, and currently used in biomedical devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenzhou Lu
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, USA
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A review of the use of genetically engineered enzymes in electrochemical biosensors. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20:3-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2008] [Accepted: 01/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Smith RG, D'Souza N, Nicklin S. A review of biosensors and biologically-inspired systems for explosives detection. Analyst 2008; 133:571-84. [DOI: 10.1039/b717933m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Gwenin CD, Kalaji M, Kay CM, Williams PA, Tito DN. An in situ amperometric biosensor for the detection of vapours from explosive compounds. Analyst 2008; 133:621-5. [DOI: 10.1039/b713269g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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