1
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Zhi S, Huang M, Cheng K. Enzyme-responsive design combined with photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment. Drug Discov Today 2024; 29:103965. [PMID: 38552778 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2024.103965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a noninvasive cancer treatment that has garnered significant attention in recent years. However, its application is still hampered by certain limitations, such as the hydrophobicity and low targeting of photosensitizers (PSs) and the hypoxia of the tumor microenvironment. Nevertheless, the fusion of enzyme-responsive drugs with PDT offers novel solutions to overcome these challenges. Utilizing the attributes of enzyme-responsive drugs, PDT can deliver PSs to the target site and selectively release them, thereby enhancing therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we spotlight recent advances in enzyme-responsive materials for cancer treatment and primarily delineate their application in combination with PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siying Zhi
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening and NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Meixin Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening and NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Kui Cheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening and NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
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2
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Russo S, Luján AP, Fraaije MW, Poelarends GJ. Synthesis of Pharmaceutically Relevant Arylamines Enabled by a Nitroreductase from Bacillus tequilensis. Chembiochem 2024:e202300846. [PMID: 38502784 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Arylamines are essential building blocks for the manufacture of valuable pharmaceuticals, pigments and dyes. However, their current industrial production involves the use of chemocatalytic procedures with a significant environmental impact. As a result, flavin-dependent nitroreductases (NRs) have received increasing attention as sustainable catalysts for more ecofriendly synthesis of arylamines. In this study, we assessed a novel NR from Bacillus tequilensis, named BtNR, for the synthesis of pharmaceutically relevant arylamines, including valuable synthons used in the manufacture of blockbuster drugs such as vismodegib, sonidegib, linezolid and sildenafil. After optimizing the enzymatic reaction conditions, high conversion of nitroaromatics to arylamines (up to 97 %) and good product yields (up to 56 %) were achieved. Our results indicate that BtNR has a broad substrate scope, including bulky nitro benzenes, nitro pyrazoles and nitro pyridines. Hence, BtNR is an interesting biocatalyst for the synthesis of pharmaceutically relevant amine-functionalized aromatics, providing an attractive alternative to traditional chemical synthesis methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Russo
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alejandro Prats Luján
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit J Poelarends
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
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3
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Paulissen E, Martin BL. A Chemically Inducible Muscle Ablation System for the Zebrafish. Zebrafish 2024. [PMID: 38436568 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2023.0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
An effective method for tissue-specific ablation in zebrafish is the nitroreductase (NTR)/metronidazole (MTZ) system. Expressing bacterial NTR in the presence of nitroimidazole compounds causes apoptotic cell death, which can be useful for understanding many biological processes. However, this requires tissue-specific expression of the NTR enzyme, and many tissues have yet to be targeted with transgenic lines that express NTR. We generated a transgenic zebrafish line expressing NTR in differentiated skeletal muscle. Treatment of embryos with MTZ caused muscle specific cell ablation. We demonstrate this line can be used to monitor muscle regeneration in whole embryos and in transplanted transgenic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Paulissen
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Benjamin L Martin
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
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4
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Rich MH, Sharrock AV, Mulligan TS, Matthews F, Brown AS, Lee-Harwood HR, Williams EM, Copp JN, Little RF, Francis JJB, Horvat CN, Stevenson LJ, Owen JG, Saxena MT, Mumm JS, Ackerley DF. A metagenomic library cloning strategy that promotes high-level expression of captured genes to enable efficient functional screening. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:1680-1691.e6. [PMID: 37898120 PMCID: PMC10842177 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Functional screening of environmental DNA (eDNA) libraries is a potentially powerful approach to discover enzymatic "unknown unknowns", but is usually heavily biased toward the tiny subset of genes preferentially transcribed and translated by the screening strain. We have overcome this by preparing an eDNA library via partial digest with restriction enzyme FatI (cuts CATG), causing a substantial proportion of ATG start codons to be precisely aligned with strong plasmid-encoded promoter and ribosome-binding sequences. Whereas we were unable to select nitroreductases from standard metagenome libraries, our FatI strategy yielded 21 nitroreductases spanning eight different enzyme families, each conferring resistance to the nitro-antibiotic niclosamide and sensitivity to the nitro-prodrug metronidazole. We showed expression could be improved by co-expressing rare tRNAs and encoded proteins purified directly using an embedded His6-tag. In a transgenic zebrafish model of metronidazole-mediated targeted cell ablation, our lead MhqN-family nitroreductase proved ∼5-fold more effective than the canonical nitroreductase NfsB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle H Rich
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Abigail V Sharrock
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Timothy S Mulligan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Frazer Matthews
- Department of Genetic Medicine, McKusick-Nathans Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Alistair S Brown
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Hannah R Lee-Harwood
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Elsie M Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Janine N Copp
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Rory F Little
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Jenni J B Francis
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Claire N Horvat
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Luke J Stevenson
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Jeremy G Owen
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Meera T Saxena
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Jeff S Mumm
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Department of Genetic Medicine, McKusick-Nathans Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Center for Nanomedicine, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - David F Ackerley
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand.
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5
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Ashoorzadeh A, Mowday AM, Abbattista MR, Guise CP, Bull MR, Silva S, Patterson AV, Smaill JB. Design and Biological Evaluation of Piperazine-Bearing Nitrobenzamide Hypoxia/GDEPT Prodrugs: The Discovery of CP-506. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:1517-1523. [PMID: 37974941 PMCID: PMC10641903 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Off-target aerobic activation of PR-104A by human aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3) has confounded the development of this dual hypoxia/gene therapy prodrug. Previous attempts to design prodrugs resistant to AKR1C3 activation have resulted in candidates that require further optimization. Herein we report the evaluation of a lipophilic series of PR-104A analogues in which a piperazine moiety has been introduced to improve drug-like properties. Octanol-water partition coefficients (LogD7.4) spanned >2 orders of magnitude. 2D antiproliferative and 3D multicellular clonogenic assays using isogenic HCT116 and H1299 cells confirmed that all examples were resistant to AKR1C3 metabolism while producing an E. coli NfsA nitroreductase-mediated bystander effect. Prodrugs 16, 17, and 20 demonstrated efficacy in H1299 xenografts where only a minority of tumor cells express NfsA. These prodrugs and their bromo/mesylate counterparts (25-27) were also evaluated for hypoxia-selective cell killing in vitro. These results in conjunction with stability assays recommended prodrug 26 (CP-506) for Phase I/II clinical trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Ashoorzadeh
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Maurice
Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Alexandra M. Mowday
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Maurice
Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Maria R. Abbattista
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Christopher P. Guise
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Matthew R. Bull
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Shevan Silva
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Adam V. Patterson
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Maurice
Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jeff B. Smaill
- Auckland
Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Maurice
Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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6
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Menozzi CAC, França RRF, Luccas PH, Baptista MDS, Fernandes TVA, Hoelz LVB, Sales Junior PA, Murta SMF, Romanha A, Galvão BVD, Macedo MDO, Goldstein ADC, Araujo-Lima CF, Felzenszwalb I, Nonato MC, Castelo-Branco FS, Boechat N. Anti- Trypanosoma cruzi Activity, Mutagenicity, Hepatocytotoxicity and Nitroreductase Enzyme Evaluation of 3-Nitrotriazole, 2-Nitroimidazole and Triazole Derivatives. Molecules 2023; 28:7461. [PMID: 38005183 PMCID: PMC10672842 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28227461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD), which is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and was discovered more than 100 years ago, remains the leading cause of death from parasitic diseases in the Americas. As a curative treatment is only available for the acute phase of CD, the search for new therapeutic options is urgent. In this study, nitroazole and azole compounds were synthesized and underwent molecular modeling, anti-T. cruzi evaluations and nitroreductase enzymatic assays. The compounds were designed as possible inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis and/or as substrates of nitroreductase enzymes. The in vitro evaluation against T. cruzi clearly showed that nitrotriazole compounds are significantly more potent than nitroimidazoles and triazoles. When their carbonyls were reduced to hydroxyl groups, the compounds showed a significant increase in activity. In addition, these substances showed potential for action via nitroreductase activation, as the substances were metabolized at higher rates than benznidazole (BZN), a reference drug against CD. Among the compounds, 1-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-2-(3-nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)ethanol (8) is the most potent and selective of the series, with an IC50 of 0.39 µM and selectivity index of 3077; compared to BZN, 8 is 4-fold more potent and 2-fold more selective. Moreover, this compound was not mutagenic at any of the concentrations evaluated, exhibited a favorable in silico ADMET profile and showed a low potential for hepatotoxicity, as evidenced by the high values of CC50 in HepG2 cells. Furthermore, compared to BZN, derivative 8 showed a higher rate of conversion by nitroreductase and was metabolized three times more quickly when both compounds were tested at a concentration of 50 µM. The results obtained by the enzymatic evaluation and molecular docking studies suggest that, as planned, nitroazole derivatives may utilize the nitroreductase metabolism pathway as their main mechanism of action against Trypanosoma cruzi. In summary, we have successfully identified and characterized new nitrotriazole analogs, demonstrating their potential as promising candidates for the development of Chagas disease drug candidates that function via nitroreductase activation, are considerably selective and show no mutagenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheyene Almeida Celestino Menozzi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal—PPGFQM-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco J, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil (R.R.F.F.)
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Rodolfo Rodrigo Florido França
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal—PPGFQM-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco J, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil (R.R.F.F.)
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Luccas
- Laboratório de Cristalografia de Proteínas—LCP-RP, Departamento de Ciências BioMoleculares, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo FCFRP-USP, Monte Alegre, Ribeirão Preto 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Mayara dos Santos Baptista
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Tácio Vinício Amorim Fernandes
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Lucas Villas Bôas Hoelz
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | | | | | - Alvaro Romanha
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/CPqRR—Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte 30190-009, Brazil
| | - Bárbara Verena Dias Galvão
- Laboratório de Mutagênese Ambiental, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências—PPGB—Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil
| | - Marcela de Oliveira Macedo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Molecular e Celular—PPGBMC—Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20211-010, Brazil
| | - Alana da Cunha Goldstein
- Laboratório de Mutagênese Ambiental, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências—PPGB—Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil
| | - Carlos Fernando Araujo-Lima
- Laboratório de Mutagênese Ambiental, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências—PPGB—Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Molecular e Celular—PPGBMC—Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20211-010, Brazil
| | - Israel Felzenszwalb
- Laboratório de Mutagênese Ambiental, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências—PPGB—Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil
| | - Maria Cristina Nonato
- Laboratório de Cristalografia de Proteínas—LCP-RP, Departamento de Ciências BioMoleculares, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo FCFRP-USP, Monte Alegre, Ribeirão Preto 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Frederico Silva Castelo-Branco
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Nubia Boechat
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Farmanguinhos—Fiocruz, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
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7
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Rogacheva E, Kraeva L, Lukin A, Vinogradova L, Komarova K, Chudinov M, Gureev M, Chupakhin E. 5-Nitrofuran-Tagged Oxazolyl Pyrazolopiperidines: Synthesis and Activity against ESKAPE Pathogens. Molecules 2023; 28:6491. [PMID: 37764267 PMCID: PMC10537382 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A series of eight 5-nitrofuran-tagged oxazolyl tetrahydropyrazolopyridines (THPPs) has been prepared in six stages with excellent regioselectivity. The testing of these compounds against pathogens of the ESKAPE panel showed a good activity of lead compound 1-(2-methoxyethyl)-5-(5-nitro-2-furoyl)-3-(1,3-oxazol-5-yl)-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrazolo[4,3-c] pyridine (13g), which is superior to nitrofurantoin. These results confirmed the benefit of combining a THPP scaffold with a nitrofuran warhead. Certain structure-activity relationships were established in the course of this study which were rationalized by the induced-fit docking experiments in silico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta Rogacheva
- Pasteur Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Saint Petersburg 197101, Russia; (E.R.)
| | - Lyudmila Kraeva
- Pasteur Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Saint Petersburg 197101, Russia; (E.R.)
| | - Alexey Lukin
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow 119454, Russia
| | - Lyubov Vinogradova
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow 119454, Russia
| | - Kristina Komarova
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow 119454, Russia
| | - Mikhail Chudinov
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow 119454, Russia
| | - Maxim Gureev
- Laboratory of Bio- and Chemoinformatics, I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119991, Russia
- Molecular Modeling Laboratory, HSE University, Saint-Petersburg 190121, Russia
| | - Evgeny Chupakhin
- Institute of Living Systems, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad 236041, Russia
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8
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Ren H, Zhong Z, Zhou S, Wei Y, Liang Y, He H, Zheng Z, Li M, He Q, Long T, Lian X, Liao X, Liu Y, Sun J. CpxA/R-Controlled Nitroreductase Expression as Target for Combinatorial Therapy against Uropathogens by Promoting Reactive Oxygen Species Generation. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023; 10:e2300938. [PMID: 37407509 PMCID: PMC10477892 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202300938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
The antibiotic resistances emerged in uropathogens lead to accumulative treatment failure and recurrent episodes of urinary tract infection (UTI), necessitating more innovative therapeutics to curb UTI before systematic infection. In the current study, the combination of amikacin and nitrofurantoin is found to synergistically eradicate Gram-negative uropathogens in vitro and in vivo. The mechanistic analysis demonstrates that the amikacin, as an aminoglycoside, induced bacterial envelope stress by introducing mistranslated proteins, thereby constitutively activating the cpxA/R two-component system (Cpx signaling). The activation of Cpx signaling stimulates the expression of bacterial major nitroreductases (nfsA/nfsB) through soxS/marA regulons. As a result, the CpxA/R-dependent nitroreductases overexpression generates considerable quantity of lethal reactive intermediates via nitroreduction and promotes the prodrug activation of nitrofurantoin. As such, these actions together disrupt the bacterial cellular redox balance with excessively-produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) as "Domino effect", accelerating the clearance of uropathogens. Although aminoglycosides are used as proof-of-principle to elucidate the mechanism, the synergy between nitrofurantoin is generally applicable to other Cpx stimuli. To summarize, this study highlights the potential of aminoglycoside-nitrofurantoin combination to replenish the arsenal against recurrent Gram-negative uropathogens and shed light on the Cpx signaling-controlled nitroreductase as a potential target to manipulate the antibiotic susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Ren
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Zixing Zhong
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Shuang Zhou
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Yiyang Wei
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Yujiao Liang
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Huiling He
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Zijian Zheng
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Mengyuan Li
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Qian He
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Tengfei Long
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Xinlei Lian
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
| | - Xiaoping Liao
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Jiangsu Co‐Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and ZoonosesYangzhou UniversityYangzhou225009China
| | - Yahong Liu
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Jiangsu Co‐Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and ZoonosesYangzhou UniversityYangzhou225009China
| | - Jian Sun
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern AgricultureNational Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original BacteriaCollege of Veterinary MedicineSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary PharmaceuticsDevelopment and Safety EvaluationSouth China Agricultural UniversityGuangzhou510642China
- Jiangsu Co‐Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and ZoonosesYangzhou UniversityYangzhou225009China
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9
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Cosgrove SC, Miller GJ, Bornadel A, Dominguez B. Realizing the Continuous Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Anilines Using an Immobilized Nitroreductase. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2023; 11:8556-8561. [PMID: 37323810 PMCID: PMC10265703 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of biocatalysis for classically synthetic transformations has seen an increase in recent years, driven by the sustainability credentials bio-based approaches can offer the chemical industry. Despite this, the biocatalytic reduction of aromatic nitro compounds using nitroreductase biocatalysts has not received significant attention in the context of synthetic chemistry. Herein, a nitroreductase (NR-55) is demonstrated to complete aromatic nitro reduction in a continuous packed-bed reactor for the first time. Immobilization on an amino-functionalized resin with a glucose dehydrogenase (GDH-101) permits extended reuse of the immobilized system, all operating at room temperature and pressure in aqueous buffer. By transferring into flow, a continuous extraction module is incorporated, allowing the reaction and workup to be continuously undertaken in a single operation. This is extended to showcase a closed-loop aqueous phase, permitting reuse of the contained cofactors, with a productivity of >10 gproduct gNR-55-1 and milligram isolated yields >50% for the product anilines. This facile method removes the need for high-pressure hydrogen gas and precious-metal catalysts and proceeds with high chemoselectivity in the presence of hydrogenation-labile halides. Application of this continuous biocatalytic methodology to panels of aryl nitro compounds could offer a sustainable approach to its energy and resource-intensive precious-metal-catalyzed counterpart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian C. Cosgrove
- School
of Chemical and Physical Sciences & Centre for Glycoscience, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin J. Miller
- School
of Chemical and Physical Sciences & Centre for Glycoscience, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Amin Bornadel
- Johnson
Matthey, 28 Cambridge
Science Park, Milton Rd, Cambridge CB4 0FP, United Kingdom
| | - Beatriz Dominguez
- Johnson
Matthey, 28 Cambridge
Science Park, Milton Rd, Cambridge CB4 0FP, United Kingdom
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10
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Ball P, Thompson E, Anderson S, Gwenin V, Ashoorzadeh A, Smaill J, Gwenin C. The Dinitrobenzamide Mustard Prodrugs, PR-104A and SN27686, for Use in a Novel MNDEPT Cancer Prodrug Therapy Approach. Biosci Rep 2023; 43:232889. [PMID: 37067816 PMCID: PMC10126811 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20230627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Directed enzyme prodrug therapy is a highly promising anti-cancer strategy. However, the current technology is limited by inefficient prodrug activation and the dose limiting toxicity associated with the prodrugs being tested; to overcome these limitations, the dinitrobenzamide mustard prodrugs, PR-104A and SN27686, have been developed. This study will assess both of these prodrugs for their potential uses in a novel magnetic-nanoparticle directed enzyme prodrug therapy strategy by determining their kinetic parameters, assessing the products formed during enzymatic reduction using HPLC and finally their ability to cause cell death in the ovarian cancer cell line, SK-OV-3. It was shown for the first time, that the dinitrobenzamide mustard prodrugs are able to be reduced by the genetically-modified nitroreductases, NfnB-cys and YfkO-cys, and that these enzyme/prodrug combinations can induce a significant cell death in the SK-OV-3 cell line, highlighting the potential for both enzyme/prodrug combinations for use in magnetic-nanoparticle directed enzyme prodrug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Amir Ashoorzadeh
- The University of Auckland Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeff Smaill
- The University of Auckland Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Chris Gwenin
- Abertay University Division of Health Sciences, Dundee, United Kingdom
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11
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Lee SH, Park CS, Lee KK, Han TH, Ban HS, Lee CS. Hemicyanine-Based Near-Infrared Fluorescence Off-On Probes for Imaging Intracellular and In Vivo Nitroreductase Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076074. [PMID: 37047042 PMCID: PMC10094042 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitroreductase (NTR) has the ability to activate nitro group-containing prodrugs and decompose explosives; thus, the evaluation of NTR activity is specifically important in pharmaceutical and environmental areas. Numerous studies have verified effective fluorescent methods to detect and image NTR activity; however, near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence probes for biological applications are lacking. Thus, in this study, we synthesized novel NIR probes (NIR-HCy-NO2 1-3) by introducing a nitro group to the hemicyanine skeleton to obtain fluorescence images of NTR activity. Additionally, this study was also designed to propose a different water solubility and investigate the catalytic efficiency of NTR. NIR-HCy-NO2 inherently exhibited a low fluorescence background due to the interference of intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) by the nitro group. The conversion from the nitro to amine group by NTR induced a change in the absorbance spectra and lead to the intense enhancement of the fluorescence spectra. When assessing the catalytic efficiency and the limit of detection (LOD), including NTR activity imaging, it was demonstrated that NIR-HCy-NO2 1 was superior to the other two probes. Moreover, we found that NIR-HCy-NO2 1 reacted with type I mitochondrial NTR in live cell imaging. Conclusively, NIR-HCy-NO2 demonstrated a great potential for application in various NTR-related fields, including NTR activity for cell imaging in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Hyeok Lee
- Bionanotechnology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Soon Park
- Bionanotechnology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bio-nanomaterials, Bio Campus of Korea Polytechnics, Nonsan 32943, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Kwan Lee
- Bionanotechnology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Hee Han
- Biotherapeutics Translational Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bioscience, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology School, University of Science & Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Seung Ban
- Biotherapeutics Translational Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bioscience, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology School, University of Science & Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Soo Lee
- Bionanotechnology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology School, University of Science & Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
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12
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Day MA, Christofferson AJ, Anderson JLR, Vass SO, Evans A, Searle PF, White SA, Hyde EI. Structure and Dynamics of Three Escherichia coli NfsB Nitro-Reductase Mutants Selected for Enhanced Activity with the Cancer Prodrug CB1954. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065987. [PMID: 36983061 PMCID: PMC10051150 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli NfsB has been studied extensively for its potential for cancer gene therapy by reducing the prodrug CB1954 to a cytotoxic derivative. We have previously made several mutants with enhanced activity for the prodrug and characterised their activity in vitro and in vivo. Here, we determine the X-ray structure of our most active triple and double mutants to date, T41Q/N71S/F124T and T41L/N71S. The two mutant proteins have lower redox potentials than wild-type NfsB, and the mutations have lowered activity with NADH so that, in contrast to the wild-type enzyme, the reduction of the enzyme by NADH, rather than the reaction with CB1954, has a slower maximum rate. The structure of the triple mutant shows the interaction between Q41 and T124, explaining the synergy between these two mutations. Based on these structures, we selected mutants with even higher activity. The most active one contains T41Q/N71S/F124T/M127V, in which the additional M127V mutation enlarges a small channel to the active site. Molecular dynamics simulations show that the mutations or reduction of the FMN cofactors of the protein has little effect on its dynamics and that the largest backbone fluctuations occur at residues that flank the active site, contributing towards its broad substrate range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Day
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | | | | | - Simon O Vass
- Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Adam Evans
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Peter F Searle
- Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Scott A White
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Eva I Hyde
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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13
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Zhang Y, Bailey TS, Kubiak AM, Lambin P, Theys J. Heterologous Gene Regulation in Clostridia: Rationally Designed Gene Regulation for Industrial and Medical Applications. ACS Synth Biol 2022; 11:3817-3828. [PMID: 36265075 PMCID: PMC9680021 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.2c00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Several species from the Clostridium genus show promise as industrial solvent producers and cancer therapeutic delivery vehicles. Previous development of shuttle plasmids and genome editing tools has aided the study of these species and enabled their exploitation in industrial and medical applications. Nevertheless, the precise control of gene expression is still hindered by the limited range of characterized promoters. To address this, libraries of promoters (native and synthetic), 5' UTRs, and alternative start codons were constructed. These constructs were tested in Escherichia coli K-12, Clostridium sporogenes NCIMB 10696, and Clostridium butyricum DSM 10702, using β-glucuronidase (gusA) as a gene reporter. Promoter activity was corroborated using a second gene reporter, nitroreductase (nmeNTR) from Neisseria meningitides. A strong correlation was observed between the two reporters. In C. sporogenes and C. butyricum, respectively, changes in GusA activity between the weakest and strongest expressing levels were 129-fold and 78-fold. Similar results were obtained with the nmeNTR. Using the GusA reporter, translation initiation from six alternative (non-AUG) start codons was measured in E. coli, C. sporogenes, and C. butyricum. Clearly, species-specific differences between clostridia and E. coli in translation initiation were observed, and the performance of the start codons was influenced by the upstream 5' UTR sequence. These results highlight a new opportunity for gene control in recombinant clostridia. To demonstrate the value of these results, expression of the sacB gene from Bacillus subtilis was optimized for use as a novel negative selection marker in C. butyricum. In summary, these results indicate improvements in the understanding of heterologous gene regulation in Clostridium species and E. coli cloning strains. This new knowledge can be utilized for rationally designed gene regulation in Clostridium-mediated industrial and medical applications, as well as fundamental research into the biology of Clostridium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanchao Zhang
- The
M-Lab, Department of Precision Medicine, GROW - School of Oncology
and Reproduction, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands,
| | - Tom S. Bailey
- The
M-Lab, Department of Precision Medicine, GROW - School of Oncology
and Reproduction, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Aleksandra M. Kubiak
- The
M-Lab, Department of Precision Medicine, GROW - School of Oncology
and Reproduction, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands,Exomnis
Biotech BV, Oxfordlaan
55, 6229 EV Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Philippe Lambin
- The
M-Lab, Department of Precision Medicine, GROW - School of Oncology
and Reproduction, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Theys
- The
M-Lab, Department of Precision Medicine, GROW - School of Oncology
and Reproduction, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
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14
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White SA, Christofferson AJ, Grainger AI, Day MA, Jarrom D, Graziano AE, Searle PF, Hyde EI. The 3D-structure, kinetics and dynamics of the E. coli nitroreductase NfsA with NADP + provide glimpses of its catalytic mechanism. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:2425-2440. [PMID: 35648111 PMCID: PMC9912195 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Nitroreductases activate nitroaromatic antibiotics and cancer prodrugs to cytotoxic hydroxylamines and reduce quinones to quinols. Using steady-state and stopped-flow kinetics, we show that the Escherichia coli nitroreductase NfsA is 20-50 fold more active with NADPH than with NADH and that product release may be rate-limiting. The crystal structure of NfsA with NADP+ shows that a mobile loop forms a phosphate-binding pocket. The nicotinamide ring and nicotinamide ribose are mobile, as confirmed in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We present a model of NADPH bound to NfsA. Only one NADP+ is seen bound to the NfsA dimers, and MD simulations show that binding of a second NADP(H) cofactor is unfavourable, suggesting that NfsA and other members of this protein superfamily may have a half-of-sites mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alastair I. Grainger
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK,Present address:
School of Life and Health SciencesAston UniversityBirminghamB4 7ETUK
| | - Martin A. Day
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK,Institute for Cancer and Genomic SciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK,Present address:
DurhamUK
| | - David Jarrom
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK,Present address:
Health Technology WalesCardiffCF10 4PLUK
| | - Antonio E. Graziano
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK,Present address:
Carlsberg Marstons Brewing CompanyNorthamptonNN1 1PZUK
| | - Peter F. Searle
- Institute for Cancer and Genomic SciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK
| | - Eva I. Hyde
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of BirminghamUK
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15
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Wan S, Vohs T, Steenwinkel TE, White WR, Lara-Ramirez A, Luck RL, Werner T, Tanasova M, Liu H. Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probes with Amine-Incorporated Xanthene Platforms for the Detection of Hypoxia. ACS Appl Bio Mater 2022; 5:10.1021/acsabm.2c00493. [PMID: 35994395 PMCID: PMC9943778 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.2c00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Three fluorescent probes A, B, and C that function in the near-infrared wavelengths and utilize pseudo xanthene platforms with an oxygen atom at the 10-position replaced by a [Me-N]2- group have been created to identify hypoxia via nitroreductase determinations at the 0.04, 0.10, and 0.19 ng/mL levels. Theoretical calculations suggest that the probes are not planar due to steric interactions. Absorptions of photons result in the transition of electron density from the indoline moieties to delocalized orbitals on the anthranilic section, ending up on the nitro groups of the electron-poor (i.e., nonreduced) probes (i.e., A, B, and C), whereas those for the more electron-rich (i.e., reduced) probes consisted of movement from the indoline groups to the right side of the anthranilic sections, resulting in a shift in absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulin Wan
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Tara Vohs
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Tessa E Steenwinkel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Walter Reynolds White
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Adrian Lara-Ramirez
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Rudy L Luck
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Thomas Werner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Marina Tanasova
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Haiying Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
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16
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Hall CJ, Astin JW, Mumm JS, Ackerley DF. A New Transgenic Line for Rapid and Complete Neutrophil Ablation. Zebrafish 2022; 19:109-113. [PMID: 35617702 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2022.0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish lines expressing nitroreductase (NTR) in specific cell compartments, which sensitizes those cells to metronidazole (MTZ)-mediated ablation, have proven extremely useful for studying tissue regeneration and investigating cell function. In contrast to many cells, neutrophils are comparatively resistant to the NTR/MTZ targeted ablation strategy. Recently, a rationally engineered variant of NTR (NTR 2.0) has been described that exhibits greatly improved MTZ-mediated ablation efficacy in zebrafish. We show that a transgenic line with neutrophil-restricted expression of NTR 2.0 demonstrates complete neutrophil ablation, with an MTZ dose 100-fold less than current treatment regimens, and with treatment durations as short as 5 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Hall
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan W Astin
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeff S Mumm
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Department of Human Genetics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - David F Ackerley
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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17
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Yu C, Wang S, Xu C, Ding Y, Zhang G, Yang N, Wu Q, Xiao Q, Wang L, Fang B, Pu C, Ge J, Gao L, Li L, Yao SQ. Two-Photon Small-Molecule Fluorogenic Probes for Visualizing Endogenous Nitroreductase Activities from Tumor Tissues of a Cancer Patient. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200400. [PMID: 35485404 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Nitroreductase (NTR), a common enzymatic biomarker of hypoxia, is widely used to evaluate tumor microenvironments. To date, numerous optical probes have been reported for NTRs detection. Approaches capable of concisely guiding the probe design of NTRs suitable for deep-tissue imaging, however, are still lacking. As such, direct optical imaging of endogenous NTR activities from tumors derived from cancer patients is thus far not possible. Herein, aided by computational calculations, the authors have successfully developed a series of two-photon (TP) small-molecule fluorogenic probes capable of sensitively detecting general NTR activities from various biological samples; by optimizing the distance between the recognition moiety and the reactive site of NTRs from different sources, the authors have discovered and experimentally proven that X4 displays the best performance in both sensitivity and selectivity. Furthermore, X4 shows excellent TP excited fluorescence properties capable of directly monitoring/imaging endogenous NTR activities from live mammalian cells, growing zebrafish, and tumor-bearing mice. Finally, with an outstanding TP tissue-penetrating imaging property, X4 is used, for the first time, to successfully detect endogenous NTR activities from the liver lysates and cardia tissues of a cancer patient. The work may provide a universal strategy to design novel TP small-molecule enzymatic probes in future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changmin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry Nanjing University Nanjing 210023 P. R. China
| | - Shuangxi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Chenchen Xu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Yang Ding
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Gaobin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Naidi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
| | - Qicai Xiao
- Department of Chemistry National University of Singapore 3 Science Drive 3 Singapore 117543 Singapore
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen) Sun Yat‐sen University Shenzhen 518107 P. R. China
| | - Limin Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi'an 710072 P. R. China
| | - Bin Fang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi'an 710072 P. R. China
| | - Chibin Pu
- Department of Gastroenterology Zhongda Hospital School of Medicine Southeast University Nanjing 210009 P. R. China
| | - Jingyan Ge
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou 310014 P. R. China
| | - Liqian Gao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen) Sun Yat‐sen University Shenzhen 518107 P. R. China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM) Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech) Nanjing 211816 P. R. China
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi'an 710072 P. R. China
- The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE Future Technologies) Xiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Shao Q. Yao
- Department of Chemistry National University of Singapore 3 Science Drive 3 Singapore 117543 Singapore
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18
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Mullowney MW, Maltseva NI, Endres M, Kim Y, Joachimiak A, Crofts TS. Functional and Structural Characterization of Diverse NfsB Chloramphenicol Reductase Enzymes from Human Pathogens. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0013922. [PMID: 35195438 PMCID: PMC8941942 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00139-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetically diverse bacteria can carry out chloramphenicol reduction, but only a single enzyme has been described that efficiently catalyzes this reaction, the NfsB nitroreductase from Haemophilus influenzae strain KW20. Here, we tested the hypothesis that some NfsB homologs function as housekeeping enzymes with the potential to become chloramphenicol resistance enzymes. We found that expression of H. influenzae and Neisseria spp. nfsB genes, but not Pasteurella multocida nfsB, allows Escherichia coli to resist chloramphenicol by nitroreduction. Mass spectrometric analysis confirmed that purified H. influenzae and N. meningitides NfsB enzymes reduce chloramphenicol to amino-chloramphenicol, while kinetics analyses supported the hypothesis that chloramphenicol reduction is a secondary activity. We combined these findings with atomic resolution structures of multiple chloramphenicol-reducing NfsB enzymes to identify potential key substrate-binding pocket residues. Our work expands the chloramphenicol reductase family and provides mechanistic insights into how a housekeeping enzyme might confer antibiotic resistance. IMPORTANCE The question of how new enzyme activities evolve is of great biological interest and, in the context of antibiotic resistance, of great medical importance. Here, we have tested the hypothesis that new antibiotic resistance mechanisms may evolve from promiscuous housekeeping enzymes that have antibiotic modification side activities. Previous work identified a Haemophilus influenzae nitroreductase housekeeping enzyme that has the ability to give Escherichia coli resistance to the antibiotic chloramphenicol by nitroreduction. Herein, we extend this work to enzymes from other Haemophilus and Neisseria strains to discover that expression of chloramphenicol reductases is sufficient to confer chloramphenicol resistance to Es. coli, confirming that chloramphenicol reductase activity is widespread across this nitroreductase family. By solving the high-resolution crystal structures of active chloramphenicol reductases, we identified residues important for this activity. Our work supports the hypothesis that housekeeping proteins possessing multiple activities can evolve into antibiotic resistance enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalia I. Maltseva
- Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Structure Biology Center, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
| | - Michael Endres
- Structure Biology Center, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
| | - Youngchang Kim
- Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Structure Biology Center, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
| | - Andrzej Joachimiak
- Center for Structural Genomics of Infectious Diseases, Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Structure Biology Center, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Terence S. Crofts
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
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19
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Luo J, Guan Z, Gao W, Wang C, Xu Z, Meng C, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Guo Q, Ling Y. A "Double-Locked" and Enzyme/pH-Activated Theranostic Agent for Accurate Tumor Imaging and Therapy. Molecules 2022; 27:425. [PMID: 35056740 PMCID: PMC8779152 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27020425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Theranostic agents for concurrent cancer therapy and diagnosis have begun attracting attention as a promising modality. However, accurate imaging and identification remains a great challenge for theranostic agents. Here, we designed and synthesized a novel theranostic agent H6M based on the "double-locked" strategy by introducing an electron-withdrawing nitro group into 1-position of a pH-responsive 3-amino-β-carboline and further covalently linking the hydroxamic acid group, a zinc-binding group (ZBG), to the 3-position of β-carboline to obtain histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitory effect for combined HDAC-targeted therapy. We found that H6M can be specifically reduced under overexpressed nitroreductase (NTR) to produce H6AQ, which emits bright fluorescence at low pH. Notably, H6M demonstrated a selective fluorescence imaging via successive reactions with NTR (first "key") and pH (second "key"), and precisely identified tumor margins with a high S/N ratio to guide tumor resection. Finally, H6M exerted robust HDAC1/cancer cell inhibitory activities compared with a known HDAC inhibitor SAHA. Therefore, the NTR/pH-activated theranostic agent provided a novel tool for precise diagnosis and efficient tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Luo
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China;
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Zongyu Guan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China;
| | - Weijie Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chen Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Zhongyuan Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chi Meng
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yun Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yuquan Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China;
| | - Qingsong Guo
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Yong Ling
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China;
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.G.); (C.W.); (Z.X.); (C.M.); (Y.L.)
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20
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Sun Z, Xu B, Spisak S, Kavran JM, Rokita SE. The minimal structure for iodotyrosine deiodinase function is defined by an outlier protein from the thermophilic bacterium Thermotoga neapolitana. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101385. [PMID: 34748729 PMCID: PMC8668982 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nitroreductase superfamily of enzymes encompasses many flavin mononucleotide (FMN)-dependent catalysts promoting a wide range of reactions. All share a common core consisting of an FMN-binding domain, and individual subgroups additionally contain one to three sequence extensions radiating from defined positions within this core to support their unique catalytic properties. To identify the minimum structure required for activity in the iodotyrosine deiodinase subgroup of this superfamily, attention was directed to a representative from the thermophilic organism Thermotoga neapolitana (TnIYD). This representative was selected based on its status as an outlier of the subgroup arising from its deficiency in certain standard motifs evident in all homologues from mesophiles. We found that TnIYD lacked a typical N-terminal sequence and one of its two characteristic sequence extensions, neither of which was found to be necessary for activity. We also show that TnIYD efficiently promotes dehalogenation of iodo-, bromo-, and chlorotyrosine, analogous to related deiodinases (IYDs) from humans and other mesophiles. In addition, 2-iodophenol is a weak substrate for TnIYD as it was for all other IYDs characterized to date. Consistent with enzymes from thermophilic organisms, we observed that TnIYD adopts a compact fold and low surface area compared with IYDs from mesophilic organisms. The insights gained from our investigations on TnIYD demonstrate the advantages of focusing on sequences that diverge from conventional standards to uncover the minimum essentials for activity. We conclude that TnIYD now represents a superior starting structure for future efforts to engineer a stable dehalogenase targeting halophenols of environmental concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuodong Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Bing Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Shaun Spisak
- Chemistry-Biology Interface Graduate Program, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jennifer M Kavran
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Oncology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven E Rokita
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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21
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Zhou Y, Lv H, Li H, Li J, Yan Y, Liu F, Hao W, Zhou Z, Wang P, Zhou S. Nitroreductase Increases Menadione-Mediated Oxidative Stress in Aspergillus nidulans. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0175821. [PMID: 34613761 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.01758-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroreductases (NTRs) catalyze the reduction of a wide range of nitro-compounds and quinones using NAD(P)H. Although the physiological functions of these enzymes remain obscure, a tentative function of resistance to reactive oxygen species (ROS) via the detoxification of menadione has been proposed. This suggestion is based primarily on the transcriptional or translational induction of an NTR response to menadione rather than on convincing experimental evidence. We investigated the performance of a fungal NTR from Aspergillus nidulans (AnNTR) exposed to menadione to address the question of whether NTR is really an ROS defense enzyme. We confirmed that AnNTR was transcriptionally induced by external menadione. We observed that menadione treatment generated cytotoxic levels of O2•-, which requires well-known antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxiredoxin to protect A. nidulans against menadione-derived ROS stress. However, AnNTR was counterproductive for ROS defense, since knocking out AnNTR decreased the intracellular O2•- levels, resulting in fungal viability higher than that of the wild type. This observation implies that AnNTR may accelerate the generation of O2•- from menadione. Our in vitro experiments indicated that AnNTR uses NADPH to reduce menadione in a single-electron reaction, and the subsequent semiquinone-quinone redox cycling resulted in O2•- generation. We demonstrated that A. nidulans nitroreductase should be an ROS generator, but not an ROS scavenger, in the presence of menadione. Our results clarified the relationship between nitroreductase and menadione-derived ROS stress, which has long been ambiguous. IMPORTANCE Menadione is commonly used as an O2•- generator in studies of oxidative stress responses. However, the precise mechanism through which menadione mediates cellular O2•- generation, as well as the way in which cells respond, remains unclear. Elucidating these events will have important implications for the use of menadione in biological and medical studies. Our results show that the production of Aspergillus nidulans nitroreductase (AnNTR) was induced by menadione. However, the accumulated AnNTR did not protect cells but instead increased the cytotoxic effect of menadione through a single-electron reduction reaction. Our finding that nitroreductase is involved in the menadione-mediated O2•- generation pathway has clarified the relationship between nitroreductase and menadione-derived ROS stress, which has long been ambiguous.
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22
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Abstract
Identification of bacterial strains is critical for the theranostics of bacterial infections and the development of antibiotics. Many organic fluorescent probes have been developed to overcome the limitations of conventional detection methods. These probes can detect bacteria with "off-on" fluorescence change, which enables the real-time imaging and quantitative analysis of bacteria in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we outline recent advances in the development of fluorescence-based dyes capable of detecting bacteria. Detection strategies are described, including specific interactions with bacterial cell wall components, bacterial and intracellular enzyme reactions, and peptidoglycan synthesis reactions. These include theranostic probes that allow simultaneous bacterial detection and photodynamic antimicrobial effects. Some examples of other miscellaneous detections in bacteria have also been described. In addition, this review demonstrates the validation of these fluorescent probes using a variety of biological models such as gram-negative and -positive bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, infected cancer cells, tumor-bearing, and infected mice. Prospects for future research are outlined by presenting the importance of effective in vitro and in vivo detection of bacteria and development of antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Min Hee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea
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23
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Liu F, Zhang H, Li K, Xie Y, Li Z. A Novel NIR Fluorescent Probe for Highly Selective Detection of Nitroreductase and Hypoxic-Tumor-Cell Imaging. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154425. [PMID: 34361578 PMCID: PMC8347683 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitroreductase as a potential biomarker for aggressive tumors has received extensive attention. In this work, a novel NIR fluorescent probe for nitroreductase detection was synthesized. The probe Py-SiRh-NTR displayed excellent sensitivity and selectivity. Most importantly, the confocal fluorescence imaging demonstrated that HepG-2 cells treated with Py-SiRh-NTR under hypoxic conditions showed obvious enhanced fluorescence, which means that the NTR was overexpressed under hypoxic conditions. Moreover, the probe showed great promise that could help us to study related anticancer mechanisms research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Liu
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (F.L.); (Y.X.)
- Laboratory of Thyroid and Parathyroid Disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.Z.); (K.L.)
| | - Kun Li
- College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (H.Z.); (K.L.)
| | - Yongmei Xie
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (F.L.); (Y.X.)
| | - Zhihui Li
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (F.L.); (Y.X.)
- Laboratory of Thyroid and Parathyroid Disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Correspondence:
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24
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Day MA, Jarrom D, Christofferson AJ, Graziano AE, Anderson JLR, Searle PF, Hyde EI, White SA. The structures of E. coli NfsA bound to the antibiotic nitrofurantoin; to 1,4-benzoquinone and to FMN. Biochem J 2021; 478:2601-17. [PMID: 34142705 DOI: 10.1042/BCJ20210160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
NfsA is a dimeric flavoprotein that catalyses the reduction in nitroaromatics and quinones by NADPH. This reduction is required for the activity of nitrofuran antibiotics. The crystal structure of free Escherichia coli NfsA and several homologues have been determined previously, but there is no structure of the enzyme with ligands. We present here crystal structures of oxidised E. coli NfsA in the presence of several ligands, including the antibiotic nitrofurantoin. Nitrofurantoin binds with the furan ring, rather than the nitro group that is reduced, near the N5 of the FMN. Molecular dynamics simulations show that this orientation is only favourable in the oxidised enzyme, while potentiometry suggests that little semiquinone is formed in the free protein. This suggests that the reduction occurs by direct hydride transfer from FMNH− to nitrofurantoin bound in the reverse orientation to that in the crystal structure. We present a model of nitrofurantoin bound to reduced NfsA in a viable hydride transfer orientation. The substrate 1,4-benzoquinone and the product hydroquinone are positioned close to the FMN N5 in the respective crystal structures with NfsA, suitable for reaction, but are mobile within the active site. The structure with a second FMN, bound as a ligand, shows that a mobile loop in the free protein forms a phosphate-binding pocket. NfsA is specific for NADPH and a similar conformational change, forming a phosphate-binding pocket, is likely to also occur with the natural cofactor.
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25
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Koyama W, Hosomi R, Matsuda K, Kawakami K, Hibi M, Shimizu T. Involvement of Cerebellar Neural Circuits in Active Avoidance Conditioning in Zebrafish. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO. [PMID: 33952613 DOI: 10.1523/ENEURO.0507-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
When animals repeatedly receive a combination of neutral conditional stimulus (CS) and aversive unconditional stimulus (US), they learn the relationship between CS and US, and show conditioned fear responses after CS. They show passive responses such as freezing or panic movements (classical or Pavlovian fear conditioning), or active behavioral responses to avoid aversive stimuli (active avoidance). Previous studies suggested the roles of the cerebellum in classical fear conditioning but it remains elusive whether the cerebellum is involved in active avoidance conditioning. In this study, we analyzed the roles of cerebellar neural circuits during active avoidance in adult zebrafish. When pairs of CS (light) and US (electric shock) were administered to wild-type zebrafish, about half of them displayed active avoidance. The expression of botulinum toxin, which inhibits the release of neurotransmitters, in cerebellar granule cells (GCs) or Purkinje cells (PCs) did not affect conditioning-independent swimming behaviors, but did inhibit active avoidance conditioning. Nitroreductase (NTR)-mediated ablation of PCs in adult zebrafish also impaired active avoidance. Furthermore, the inhibited transmission of GCs or PCs resulted in reduced fear-conditioned Pavlovian fear responses. Our findings suggest that the zebrafish cerebellum plays an active role in active avoidance conditioning.
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26
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Zhang Y, Wang L, Zhou C, Lin Y, Liu S, Zeng W, Yu K, Zhou T, Cao J. Unraveling Mechanisms and Epidemic Characteristics of Nitrofurantoin Resistance in Uropathogenic Enterococcus faecium Clinical Isolates. Infect Drug Resist 2021; 14:1601-1611. [PMID: 33911884 PMCID: PMC8075312 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s301802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Enterococcus faecium is an important nosocomial pathogen causing urinary tract infection, and the reapplication of nitrofurantoin (NIT) in the clinic has attracted great attention. This study aims to explore the NIT resistance mechanisms and epidemiological characteristics of E. faecium clinical isolates. Patients and Methods A total of 633 E. faecium clinical isolates was obtained from urine samples in a clinical teaching hospital during 2017–2018. Among them, 40 NIT-resistant strains, and a similar number of -intermediate and -susceptible strains were isolated. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of NIT were detected by agar dilution method. The prevalence and mutations of nitroreductase-encoding genes ef0404 and ef0648 were explored by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), followed by efflux pump inhibition test and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) to investigate the resistance mechanisms of NIT. Furthermore, the epidemiological characteristics were detected by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Results The carrying rates of nitroreductase in NIT-susceptible, -intermediate, and -resistant isolates were 100%, 50%, and 20%, respectively. After exposure to the efflux pump inhibitor, the MIC of 12 E. faecium decreased by ≥4-fold. However, the efflux pump genes efrAB, emeA, and oqxAB were not overexpressed in NIT-resistant E. faecium isolates. Moreover, MLST analysis revealed that all the NIT-resistant isolates belonged to CC17, of which 30 (75%) were associated with ST78. Conclusion This study has established for the first time that the absence of EF0404 and EF0648 is the main mechanism of NIT resistance in E. faecium. Our findings are likely to fill the knowledge gap pertaining to the NIT resistance mechanism in E. faecium and provide important insights for molecular epidemiological characteristics analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingbo Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Cui Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Yishuai Lin
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Shixing Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiliang Zeng
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaihang Yu
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Tieli Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianming Cao
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, 325035, People's Republic of China
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27
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Ball P, Hobbs R, Anderson S, Thompson E, Gwenin V, Von Ruhland C, Gwenin C. The YfkO Nitroreductase from Bacillus Licheniformis on Gold-Coated Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles: Towards a Novel Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy Approach. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:517. [PMID: 33918536 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial nitroreductase NfnB has been the focus of a great deal of research for its use in directed enzyme prodrug therapy in combination with the nitroreductase prodrug CB1954 with this combination of enzyme and prodrug even entering clinical trials. Despite some promising results, there are major limitations to this research, such as the fact that the lowest reported Km for this enzyme far exceeds the maximum dosage of CB1954. Due to these limitations, new enzymes are now being investigated for their potential use in directed enzyme prodrug therapy. One such enzyme that has proved promising is the YfkO nitroreductase from Bacillus Licheniformis. Upon investigation, the YfkO nitroreductase was shown to have a much lower Km (below the maximum dosage) than that of NfnB as well as the fact that when reacting with the prodrug it produces a much more favourable ratio of enzymatic products than NfnB, forming more of the desired 4-hydroxylamine derivative of CB1954.
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28
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Ruiz de Garibay G, García de Jalón E, Stigen E, Lund KB, Popa M, Davidson B, Safont MM, Rygh CB, Espedal H, Barrett TM, Haug BE, McCormack E. Repurposing 18F-FMISO as a PET tracer for translational imaging of nitroreductase-based gene directed enzyme prodrug therapy. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:6044-6057. [PMID: 33897898 PMCID: PMC8058731 DOI: 10.7150/thno.55092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroreductases (NTR) are a family of bacterial enzymes used in gene directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) that selectively activate prodrugs containing aromatic nitro groups to exert cytotoxic effects following gene transduction in tumours. The clinical development of NTR-based GDEPT has, in part, been hampered by the lack of translational imaging modalities to assess gene transduction and drug cytotoxicity, non-invasively. This study presents translational preclinical PET imaging to validate and report NTR activity using the clinically approved radiotracer, 18F-FMISO, as substrate for the NTR enzyme. Methods: The efficacy with which 18F-FMISO could be used to report NfsB NTR activity in vivo was investigated using the MDA-MB-231 mammary carcinoma xenograft model. For validation, subcutaneous xenografts of cells constitutively expressing NTR were imaged using 18F-FMISO PET/CT and fluorescence imaging with CytoCy5S, a validated fluorescent NTR substrate. Further, examination of the non-invasive functionality of 18F-FMISO PET/CT in reporting NfsB NTR activity in vivo was assessed in metastatic orthotopic NfsB NTR expressing xenografts and metastasis confirmed by bioluminescence imaging. 18F-FMISO biodistribution was acquired ex vivo by an automatic gamma counter measuring radiotracer retention to confirm in vivo results. To assess the functional imaging of NTR-based GDEPT with 18F-FMISO, PET/CT was performed to assess both gene transduction and cytotoxicity effects of prodrug therapy (CB1954) in subcutaneous models. Results:18F-FMISO retention was detected in NTR+ subcutaneous xenografts, displaying significantly higher PET contrast than NTR- xenografts (p < 0.0001). Substantial 18F-FMISO retention was evident in metastases of orthotopic xenografts (p < 0.05). Accordingly, higher 18F-FMISO biodistribution was prevalent ex vivo in NTR+ xenografts. 18F-FMISO NfsB NTR PET/CT imaging proved useful for monitoring in vivo NTR transduction and the cytotoxic effect of prodrug therapy. Conclusions:18F-FMISO NfsB NTR PET/CT imaging offered significant contrast between NTR+ and NTR- tumours and effective resolution of metastatic progression. Furthermore, 18F-FMISO NfsB NTR PET/CT imaging proved efficient in monitoring the two steps of GDEPT, in vivo NfsB NTR transduction and response to CB1954 prodrug therapy. These results support the repurposing of 18F-FMISO as a readily implementable PET imaging probe to be employed as companion diagnostic test for NTR-based GDEPT systems.
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29
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Yoon SA, Chun J, Kang C, Lee MH. Self-Calibrating Bipartite Fluorescent Sensor for Nitroreductase Activity and Its Application to Cancer and Hypoxic Cells. ACS Appl Bio Mater 2021; 4:2052-2057. [PMID: 35014331 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Aromatic nitro compounds are reduced to their corresponding amino derivatives by nitroreductases (NTR), while identification and characterization of the corresponding enzymes in mammalian systems are yet unrevealed. However, mammalian NTR activity has been considered as a favorable target in development of theranostic agents for cancer and hypoxia of solid tumors. Currently, small molecule-based fluorescent probes have emerged as a valuable assay tool for NTR activity. However, there has been a limit to comparing NTR activity between different cells, since most probes have relied on fluorescence changes that are affected by not only enzymatic activity but also nonenzymatic factors. Here, we developed a self-calibrating bipartite fluorescent probe, consisting of NTR-sensitive nitronaphthalimide and nonsensitive coumarin moieties. Thereby, it was possible to compare the relative NTR activity by monitoring fluorescence ratios in noncancerous and some cancerous cells and to demonstrate for certain that the elevated NTR activity is associated with cancer cells and hypoxia states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin A Yoon
- Department of Chemistry, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Korea
| | - Jieun Chun
- The School of East-West Medical Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Korea
| | - Chulhun Kang
- The School of East-West Medical Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Korea
| | - Min Hee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Korea
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30
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Kim SJ, Yoon JW, Yoon SA, Lee MH. Ratiometric Fluorescence Assay for Nitroreductase Activity: Locked-Flavylium Fluorophore as a NTR-Sensitive Molecular Probe. Molecules 2021; 26:1088. [PMID: 33669590 PMCID: PMC7923055 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26041088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroreductases belong to a member of flavin-containing enzymes that can reduce nitroaromatic compounds to amino derivatives with NADH as an electron donor. NTR activity is known to be elevated in the cancerous environment and is considered an advantageous target in therapeutic prodrugs for the treatment of cancer. Here, we developed a ratiometric fluorescent molecule for observing NTR activity in living cells. This can provide a selective and sensitive response to NTR with a distinct increase in fluorescence ratio (FI530/FI630) as well as color changes. We also found a significant increase in NTR activity in cervical cancer HeLa and lung cancer A549 cells compared to non-cancerous NIH3T3. We proposed that this new ratiometric fluorescent molecule could potentially be used as a NTR-sensitive molecular probe in the field of cancer diagnosis and treatment development related to NTR activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Min Hee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul 04310, Korea; (S.J.K.); (J.W.Y.); (S.A.Y.)
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31
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Sarkar S, Lee H, Ryu HG, Singha S, Lee YM, Reo YJ, Jun YW, Kim KH, Kim WJ, Ahn KH. A Study on Hypoxia Susceptibility of Organ Tissues by Fluorescence Imaging with a Ratiometric Nitroreductase Probe. ACS Sens 2021; 6:148-155. [PMID: 33334101 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia, a condition of oxygen deficiency in tissues, features various diseases including solid tumor. Under hypoxia, several reductases such as nitroreductases are elevated. Based on this fact, we have investigated an indirect way to assess the hypoxia susceptibility of different organ tissues (mouse lung, heart, spleen, kidney, and liver) by detecting nitroreductase present within. Among the organs, the kidney showed a notable susceptibility to hypoxia, which was due to the renal medulla, not due to the renal cortex, as observed by ratiometric fluorescence imaging with a probe. The probe features ratiometric signaling, NIR-emitting, two-photon absorbing, and pH-insensitive emission properties, offering a practical tool for studying the nitroreductase activity and, furthermore, hypoxia-associated biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Sarkar
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyori Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Gun Ryu
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Subhankar Singha
- Institute of Advanced Studies and Research, JIS University, Kolkata 700091, India
| | - Yeong Mi Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye Jin Reo
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Woong Jun
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong Hwan Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Jong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyo Han Ahn
- Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-Ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyungbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
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32
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Hall KR, Robins KJ, Williams EM, Rich MH, Calcott MJ, Copp JN, Little RF, Schwörer R, Evans GB, Patrick WM, Ackerley DF. Intracellular complexities of acquiring a new enzymatic function revealed by mass-randomisation of active-site residues. eLife 2020; 9:59081. [PMID: 33185191 PMCID: PMC7738182 DOI: 10.7554/elife.59081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Selection for a promiscuous enzyme activity provides substantial opportunity for competition between endogenous and newly-encountered substrates to influence the evolutionary trajectory, an aspect that is often overlooked in laboratory directed evolution studies. We selected the Escherichia coli nitro/quinone reductase NfsA for chloramphenicol detoxification by simultaneously randomising eight active-site residues and interrogating ~250,000,000 reconfigured variants. Analysis of every possible intermediate of the two best chloramphenicol reductases revealed complex epistatic interactions. In both cases, improved chloramphenicol detoxification was only observed after an R225 substitution that largely eliminated activity with endogenous quinones. Error-prone PCR mutagenesis reinforced the importance of R225 substitutions, found in 100% of selected variants. This strong activity trade-off demonstrates that endogenous cellular metabolites hold considerable potential to shape evolutionary outcomes. Unselected prodrug-converting activities were mostly unaffected, emphasising the importance of negative selection to effect enzyme specialisation, and offering an application for the evolved genes as dual-purpose selectable/counter-selectable markers. In the cell, most tasks are performed by big molecules called proteins, which behave like molecular machines. Although proteins are often described as having one job each, this is not always true, and many proteins can perform different roles. Enzymes are a type of protein that facilitate chemical reactions. They are often specialised to one reaction, but they can also accelerate other side-reactions. During evolution, these side-reactions can become more useful and, as a result, the role of the enzyme may change over time. The main role of the enzyme called NfsA in Escherichia coli bacteria is thought to be to convert molecules called quinones into hydroquinones, which can protect the cell from toxic molecules produced in oxidation reactions. As a side-reaction, NfsA has the potential to protect bacteria from an antibiotic called chloramphenicol, but it generally does this with such low efficacy that the effects are negligible. Producing hydroquinones is helpful to the cell in some situations, but if bacteria are regularly exposed to chloramphenicol, NfsA’s role aiding antibiotic resistance could become more important. Over time, the enzyme could evolve to become better at neutralising chloramphenicol. Therefore, NfsA provides an opportunity to study the evolution of proteins and how bacteria adapt to antibiotics. To see how evolution might affect the activity of NfsA, Hall et al. generated 250 million E. coli with either random or targeted changes to the gene that codes for the NfsA enzyme. The resulting variants of NfsA that were most effective against chloramphenicol all had a change that eliminated the enzyme’s ability to convert quinones. This result demonstrates a key trade-off between roles for NfsA, where one must be lost for the other to improve. These results demonstrate the interplay between a protein’s different roles and provide insight into bacterial drug resistance. Additionally, the experiments showed that the bacteria with improved resistance to chloramphenicol also became more sensitive to another antibiotic, metronidazole. These findings could inform the fight against drug-resistant bacterial infections and may also be helpful in guiding the design of proteins with different roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsi R Hall
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Katherine J Robins
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Elsie M Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Michelle H Rich
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Mark J Calcott
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Janine N Copp
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Rory F Little
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Ralf Schwörer
- Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Ferrier Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Gary B Evans
- Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Ferrier Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Wayne M Patrick
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - David F Ackerley
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.,Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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33
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Copp JN, Pletzer D, Brown AS, Van der Heijden J, Miton CM, Edgar RJ, Rich MH, Little RF, Williams EM, Hancock REW, Tokuriki N, Ackerley DF. Mechanistic Understanding Enables the Rational Design of Salicylanilide Combination Therapies for Gram-Negative Infections. mBio 2020; 11:e02068-20. [PMID: 32934086 DOI: 10.1128/mBio.02068-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a critical need for more-effective treatments to combat multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. Combination therapies are a promising strategy, especially when these enable existing clinical drugs to be repurposed as antibiotics. We examined the mechanisms of action and basis of innate Gram-negative resistance for the anthelmintic drug niclosamide and subsequently exploited this information to demonstrate that niclosamide and analogs kill Gram-negative bacteria when combined with antibiotics that inhibit drug efflux or permeabilize membranes. We confirm the synergistic potential of niclosamide in vitro against a diverse range of recalcitrant Gram-negative clinical isolates and in vivo in a mouse abscess model. We also demonstrate that nitroreductases can confer resistance to niclosamide but show that evolution of these enzymes for enhanced niclosamide resistance confers a collateral sensitivity to other clinical antibiotics. Our results highlight how detailed mechanistic understanding can accelerate the evaluation and implementation of new combination therapies. One avenue to combat multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria is the coadministration of multiple drugs (combination therapy), which can be particularly promising if drugs synergize. The identification of synergistic drug combinations, however, is challenging. Detailed understanding of antibiotic mechanisms can address this issue by facilitating the rational design of improved combination therapies. Here, using diverse biochemical and genetic assays, we examine the molecular mechanisms of niclosamide, a clinically approved salicylanilide compound, and demonstrate its potential for Gram-negative combination therapies. We discovered that Gram-negative bacteria possess two innate resistance mechanisms that reduce their niclosamide susceptibility: a primary mechanism mediated by multidrug efflux pumps and a secondary mechanism of nitroreduction. When efflux was compromised, niclosamide became a potent antibiotic, dissipating the proton motive force (PMF), increasing oxidative stress, and reducing ATP production to cause cell death. These insights guided the identification of diverse compounds that synergized with salicylanilides when coadministered (efflux inhibitors, membrane permeabilizers, and antibiotics that are expelled by PMF-dependent efflux), thus suggesting that salicylanilide compounds may have broad utility in combination therapies. We validate these findings in vivo using a murine abscess model, where we show that niclosamide synergizes with the membrane permeabilizing antibiotic colistin against high-density infections of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative clinical isolates. We further demonstrate that enhanced nitroreductase activity is a potential route to adaptive niclosamide resistance but show that this causes collateral susceptibility to clinical nitro-prodrug antibiotics. Thus, we highlight how mechanistic understanding of mode of action, innate/adaptive resistance, and synergy can rationally guide the discovery, development, and stewardship of novel combination therapies.
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Mowday AM, Copp JN, Syddall SP, Dubois LJ, Wang J, Lieuwes NG, Biemans R, Ashoorzadeh A, Abbattista MR, Williams EM, Guise CP, Lambin P, Ackerley DF, Smaill JB, Theys J, Patterson AV. E. coli nitroreductase NfsA is a reporter gene for non-invasive PET imaging in cancer gene therapy applications. Theranostics 2020; 10:10548-10562. [PMID: 32929365 PMCID: PMC7482819 DOI: 10.7150/thno.46826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of reporter genes to non-invasively image molecular processes inside cells has significant translational potential, particularly in the context of systemically administered gene therapy vectors and adoptively administered cells such as immune or stem cell based therapies. Bacterial nitroreductase enzymes possess ideal properties for reporter gene imaging applications, being of non-human origin and possessing the ability to metabolize a range of clinically relevant nitro(hetero)cyclic substrates. Methods: A library of eleven Escherichia coli nitroreductase candidates were screened for the ability to efficiently metabolize 2-nitroimidazole based positron emission tomography (PET) probes originally developed as radiotracers for hypoxic cell imaging. Several complementary methods were utilized to detect formation of cell-entrapped metabolites, including various in vitro and in vivo models to establish the capacity of the 2-nitroimidazole PET agent EF5 to quantify expression of a nitroreductase candidate. Proof-of-principle PET imaging studies were successfully conducted using 18F-HX4. Results: Recombinant enzyme kinetics, bacterial SOS reporter assays, anti-proliferative assays and flow cytometry approaches collectively identified the major oxygen-insensitive nitroreductase NfsA from E. coli (NfsA_Ec) as the most promising nitroreductase reporter gene. Cells expressing NfsA_Ec were demonstrably labelled with the imaging agent EF5 in a manner that was quantitatively superior to hypoxia, in monolayers (2D), multicellular layers (3D), and in human tumor xenograft models. EF5 retention correlated with NfsA_Ec positive cell density over a range of EF5 concentrations in 3D in vitro models and in xenografts in vivo and was predictive of in vivo anti-tumor activity of the cytotoxic prodrug PR-104. Following PET imaging with 18F-HX4, a significantly higher tumor-to-blood ratio was observed in two xenograft models for NfsA_Ec expressing tumors compared to the parental tumors thereof, providing verification of this reporter gene imaging approach. Conclusion: This study establishes that the bacterial nitroreductase NfsA_Ec can be utilized as an imaging capable reporter gene, with the ability to metabolize and trap 2-nitroimidazole PET imaging agents for non-invasive imaging of gene expression.
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35
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Hibbard HAJ, Reynolds MM. Enzyme-Activated Nitric Oxide-Releasing Composite Material for Antibacterial Activity Against Escherichia coli. ACS Appl Bio Mater 2020; 3:5367-5374. [PMID: 35021711 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial infections occurring on medical devices are incredibly difficult to treat, highlighting the urgency for progress in developing antibiotics and antibacterial materials. This work describes the preparation of an antibacterial prodrug polymer composite material for use as an antibacterial coating for medical devices to prevent infections. Polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane films are prepared containing a bacterial nitroreductase enzyme-activated diazeniumdiolate that releases nitric oxide (NO), a known potent antimicrobial agent. Characterization of the surface of the composite materials by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS) reveals that the surface of the materials is composed of high amounts of nitrogen due to incorporation of the NO donor compound, up to 13.2% nitrogen on the surface of the 2.5% w/v diazeniumdiolate composite. NO release from the composite films is observed only after metabolism by a bacterial nitroreductase enzyme isolated from E. coli, demonstrating the prodrug nature of the polymer composite materials. Antibacterial efficacy experiments resulted in up to a 66% reduction in E. coli after exposure to the diazeniumdiolate-composite materials. This work details the first illustration of an antibacterial enzyme-activated NO-releasing polymer, a material with potential application as a medical device coating to prevent device-associated infections and improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailey A J Hibbard
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Melissa M Reynolds
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
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36
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Braga D, Hasan M, Kröber T, Last D, Lackner G. Redox Coenzyme F 420 Biosynthesis in Thermomicrobia Involves Reduction by Stand-Alone Nitroreductase Superfamily Enzymes. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:e00457-20. [PMID: 32276981 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00457-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Coenzyme F420 is a redox cofactor involved in hydride transfer reactions in archaea and bacteria. Since F420-dependent enzymes are attracting increasing interest as tools in biocatalysis, F420 biosynthesis is being revisited. While it was commonly accepted for a long time that the 2-phospho-l-lactate (2-PL) moiety of F420 is formed from free 2-PL, it was recently shown that phosphoenolpyruvate is incorporated in Actinobacteria and that the C-terminal domain of the FbiB protein, a member of the nitroreductase (NTR) superfamily, converts dehydro-F420 into saturated F420 Outside the Actinobacteria, however, the situation is still unclear because FbiB is missing in these organisms and enzymes of the NTR family are highly diversified. Here, we show by heterologous expression and in vitro assays that stand-alone NTR enzymes from Thermomicrobia exhibit dehydro-F420 reductase activity. Metabolome analysis and proteomics studies confirmed the proposed biosynthetic pathway in Thermomicrobium roseum These results clarify the biosynthetic route of coenzyme F420 in a class of Gram-negative bacteria, redefine functional subgroups of the NTR superfamily, and offer an alternative for large-scale production of F420 in Escherichia coli in the future.IMPORTANCE Coenzyme F420 is a redox cofactor of Archaea and Actinobacteria, as well as some Gram-negative bacteria. Its involvement in processes such as the biosynthesis of antibiotics, the degradation of xenobiotics, and asymmetric enzymatic reductions renders F420 of great relevance for biotechnology. Recently, a new biosynthetic step during the formation of F420 in Actinobacteria was discovered, involving an enzyme domain belonging to the versatile nitroreductase (NTR) superfamily, while this process remained blurred in Gram-negative bacteria. Here, we show that a similar biosynthetic route exists in Thermomicrobia, although key biosynthetic enzymes show different domain architectures and are only distantly related. Our results shed light on the biosynthesis of F420 in Gram-negative bacteria and refine the knowledge about sequence-function relationships within the NTR superfamily of enzymes. Appreciably, these results offer an alternative route to produce F420 in Gram-negative model organisms and unveil yet another biochemical facet of this pathway to be explored by synthetic microbiologists.
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37
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Kienle DF, Chaparro Sosa AF, Kaar JL, Schwartz DK. Polyelectrolyte Multilayers Enhance the Dry Storage and pH Stability of Physically Entrapped Enzymes. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:22640-22649. [PMID: 32352745 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c04964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) are attractive materials for immobilizing enzymes due to their unique ionic environment, which can prevent unfolding. Here, we demonstrated that the stability to dry storage and elevated pH were significantly enhanced when negatively charged nitroreductase (NfsB) was embedded in a PEM by depositing alternating layers of the enzyme and polycation (PC) onto porous silica particles. The PC strength (i.e., pKa) and the surface charge of the film were varied to probe the effects that internal and surface chemistry had on the pH stability of the entrapped NfsB. All films showed enhanced activity retention at elevated pH (>6), and inactivation at reduced pH (<6) similar to NfsB in solution, indicating that the primary stabilizing effect of immobilization was achieved through ionic interactions between NfsB and the PC and not through changes to the surface charge of the NfsB. Additionally, films that were stored dry at 4 °C for 1 month retained full activity, while those stored at room temperature lost 30% activity. Remarkably, at 50 °C, above the NfsB melting temperature, 40% activity was retained after 1 month of dry storage. Our results suggest that internal film properties are significantly more important than surface charge, which had minor effects on activity. Specifically, immobilization with the weak PC, poly(l-lysine), increased the optimal pH and the activity of immobilized NfsB (which we attribute to greater permeability), relative to immobilization with the strong PC, poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride). However, NfsB was leached from the PLL film to a greater extent. Overall, these observations demonstrate that internal ionic cross-linking is key to the stabilizing effects of PEMs and that the pH response can be tuned by controlling the number of cross-links (e.g., by changing the strength of the PC). However, this may be at the cost of reduced loading, illustrating the necessity of simultaneously optimizing enzyme loading, internal ionic cross-linking, and substrate transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F Kienle
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Andres F Chaparro Sosa
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Joel L Kaar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Daniel K Schwartz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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Brennecke B, Wang Q, Zhang Q, Hu HY, Nazaré M. An Activatable Lanthanide Luminescent Probe for Time-Gated Detection of Nitroreductase in Live Bacteria. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:8512-8516. [PMID: 32212410 PMCID: PMC7317344 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202002391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report the development of a turn‐on lanthanide luminescent probe for time‐gated detection of nitroreductases (NTRs) in live bacteria. The probe is activated through NTR‐induced formation of the sensitizing carbostyril antenna and resulting energy transfer to the lanthanide center. This novel NTR‐responsive trigger is virtually non‐fluorescent in its inactivated form and features a large signal increase upon activation. We show that the probe is capable of selectively sensing NTR in lysates as well as in live bacteria of the ESKAPE family which are clinically highly relevant multiresistant pathogens responsible for the majority of hospital infections. The results suggest that our probe could be used to develop diagnostic tools for bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Brennecke
- Medicinal Chemistry, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie, 13125, Berlin, Germany
| | - Qinghua Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Qingyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Hai-Yu Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Marc Nazaré
- Medicinal Chemistry, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie, 13125, Berlin, Germany
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39
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Sukumar UK, Rajendran JCB, Gambhir SS, Massoud TF, Paulmurugan R. SP94-Targeted Triblock Copolymer Nanoparticle Delivers Thymidine Kinase-p53- Nitroreductase Triple Therapeutic Gene and Restores Anticancer Function against Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Vivo. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12:11307-11319. [PMID: 32048820 PMCID: PMC7997290 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b20071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Gene-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (GDEPT) is a promising approach for cancer therapy, but it suffers from poor targeted delivery in vivo. Polyethylenimine (PEI) is a cationic polymer efficient in delivering negatively charged nucleic acids across cell membranes; however, it is highly toxic in vivo. Hence, we efficiently reduced PEI toxicity without compromising its transfection efficiency by conjugating it with poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as triblock copolymers through a multistep synthetic process. The synthesized nanoparticles showed efficient delivery of loaded nucleic acids to tumor cells in vitro and in vivo in mice. We used this nanoparticle to deliver a rationally engineered thymidine kinase (TK)-p53-nitroreductase (NTR) triple therapeutic gene against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), where p53 tumor suppressor gene is mutated in more than 85% of cancers. TK-p53-NTR triple gene therapy restores p53 function and potentiates cancer cell response to delivered prodrugs (ganciclovir (GCV) and CB1954). We used SP94 peptide-functionalized PLGA-PEG-PEI nanoparticles for the optimal delivery of TK-p53-NTR therapeutic gene in vivo. The nanoparticles prepared from the conjugated polymer showed high loading efficiency for the DNA and markedly enhanced TK-NTR-mediated gene therapy upon the simultaneous coexpression of p53 by the concurrent rescue of the endogenous apoptotic pathway in HCC cells of both p53-mutant and wild-type phenotypes in vitro. In vivo delivery of TK-p53-NTR genes by SP94-targeted PLGA-PEG-PEI NP in mice resulted in a strong expression of suicide genes selectively in tumors, and subsequent administration of GCV and CB1954 led to a decline in tumor growth, and established a superior therapeutic outcome against HCC. We demonstrate a highly efficient approach that exogenously supplements p53 to enable synergy with the outcome of TK-NTR suicide gene therapy against HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uday K Sukumar
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
| | - Jagadesh Chandra Bose Rajendran
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
| | - Sanjiv S Gambhir
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
| | - Tarik F Massoud
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
| | - Ramasamy Paulmurugan
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, California 94305, United States
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40
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Klockow JL, Hettie KS, LaGory EL, Moon EJ, Giaccia AJ, Graves EE, Chin FT. An Activatable NIR Fluorescent Rosol for Selectively Imaging Nitroreductase Activity. Sens Actuators B Chem 2020; 306:127446. [PMID: 32265579 PMCID: PMC7138224 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2019.127446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia (pO2 ≤ ~1.5%) is an important characteristic of tumor microenvironments that directly correlates with resistance against first-line therapies and tumor proliferation/infiltration. The ability to accurately identify hypoxic tumor cells/tissue could afford tailored therapeutic regimens for personalized treatment, development of more-effective therapies, and discerning the mechanisms underlying disease progression. Fluorogenic constructs identifying aforesaid cells/tissue operate by targeting the bioreductive activity of primarily nitroreductases (NTRs), but collectively present photophysical and/or physicochemical shortcomings that could limit effectiveness. To overcome these limitations, we present the rational design, development, and evaluation of the first activatable ultracompact xanthene core-based molecular probe (NO 2 -Rosol) for selectively imaging NTR activity that affords an "OFF-ON" near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence response (> 700 nm) alongside a remarkable Stokes shift (> 150 nm) via NTR activity-facilitated modulation to its energetics whose resultant interplay discontinues an intramolecular d-PET fluorescence-quenching mechanism transpiring between directly-linked electronically-uncoupled π-systems comprising its components. DFT calculations guided selection of a suitable fluorogenic scaffold and nitroaromatic moiety candidate that when adjoined could (i) afford such photophysical response upon bioreduction by upregulated NTR activity in hypoxic tumor cells/tissue and (ii) employ a retention mechanism strategy that capitalizes on an inherent physical property of the NIR fluorogenic scaffold for achieving signal amplification. NO 2 -Rosol demonstrated 705 nm NIR fluorescence emission and 157 nm Stokes shift, selectivity for NTR over relevant bioanalytes, and a 28-/12-fold fluorescence enhancement in solution and between cells cultured under different oxic conditions, respectively. In establishing feasibility for NO 2 -Rosol to provide favorable contrast levels in solutio/vitro, we anticipate NO 2 -Rosol doing so in preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth S. Hettie
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Corresponding author: Kenneth S. Hettie, Ph.D., 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, , Frederick T. Chin, Ph.D., 3165 Porter Drive, Room 2129, Palo Alto, CA 94304,
| | - Edward L. LaGory
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Eui Jung Moon
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Amato J. Giaccia
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Edward E. Graves
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Frederick T. Chin
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Corresponding author: Kenneth S. Hettie, Ph.D., 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, , Frederick T. Chin, Ph.D., 3165 Porter Drive, Room 2129, Palo Alto, CA 94304,
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Maciel Diogo G, Andrade JS, Sales Junior PA, Maria Fonseca Murta S, Dos Santos VMR, Taylor JG. Trypanocidal Activity of Flavanone Derivatives. Molecules 2020; 25:E397. [PMID: 31963596 PMCID: PMC7024391 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25020397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is classified as a neglected disease by the World Health Organization. For clinical treatment, only two drugs have been on the market, Benznidazole and Nifurtimox, both of which are recommended for use in the acute phase but present low cure rates in the chronic phase. Furthermore, strong side effects may result in discontinuation of this treatment. Faced with this situation, we report the synthesis and trypanocidal activity of 3-benzoyl-flavanones. Novel 3-benzoyl-flavanone derivatives were prepared in satisfactory yields in the 3-step synthetic procedure. According to recommended guidelines, the whole cell-based screening methodology was utilized that allowed for the simultaneous use of both parasite forms responsible for human infection. The majority of the tested compounds displayed promising anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity and the most potent flavanone bearing a nitrofuran moiety was more potent than the reference drug, Benznidazole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Maciel Diogo
- Chemistry Department, ICEB, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Campus Universitário Morro do Cruzeiro, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil; (G.M.D.); (J.S.A.); (V.M.R.D.S.)
| | - Josimara Souza Andrade
- Chemistry Department, ICEB, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Campus Universitário Morro do Cruzeiro, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil; (G.M.D.); (J.S.A.); (V.M.R.D.S.)
| | | | | | - Viviane Martins Rebello Dos Santos
- Chemistry Department, ICEB, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Campus Universitário Morro do Cruzeiro, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil; (G.M.D.); (J.S.A.); (V.M.R.D.S.)
| | - Jason Guy Taylor
- Chemistry Department, ICEB, Federal University of Ouro Preto, Campus Universitário Morro do Cruzeiro, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil; (G.M.D.); (J.S.A.); (V.M.R.D.S.)
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Ni H, Li N, Qian M, He J, Chen Q, Huang Y, Zou L, Long ZE, Wang F. Identification of a Novel Nitroreductase LNR and Its Role in Pendimethalin Catabolism in Bacillus subtilis Y3. J Agric Food Chem 2019; 67:12816-12823. [PMID: 31675231 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b04354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Microbial degradation plays a major role in the dissipation of pendimethalin, and nitroreduction is an initial and detoxicating step. Previously, a pendimethalin nitroreductase, PNR, was identified in Bacillus subtilis Y3. Here, another pendimethalin nitroreductase from strain Y3, LNR, was identified. LNR shares only 40% identity with PNR and reduces the aromatic ring C-6 nitro group of pendimethalin and both nitro groups of trifluralin, butralin, and oryzalin. The catalytic activities against the four dinitroanilines were much higher for LNR than for PNR. lnr deletion significantly reduced the pendimethalin-reduction activity (60% activity loss), while pnr deletion led to only 30% activity loss, indicating that both LNR and PNR were involved in pendimethalin nitroreduction in strain Y3; however, LNR played the major role. This study facilitates the elucidation of pendimethalin catabolism and provides degrading enzyme resources for the removal of dinitroaniline herbicide residues in environment and agricultural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Ni
- College of Life Sciences , Jiangxi Normal University , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330022 , China
| | - Na Li
- School of Life Science and Technology , Nanyang Normal University , Nanyang , Henan 473061 , China
| | - Meng Qian
- Laboratory Center of Life Science, College of Life Sciences , Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 210095 , China
| | - Jian He
- Laboratory Center of Life Science, College of Life Sciences , Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 210095 , China
| | - Qing Chen
- College of Life Sciences , Zaozhuang University , Zaozhuang , Shandong 277160 , China
| | - Yunhong Huang
- College of Life Sciences , Jiangxi Normal University , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330022 , China
| | - Long Zou
- College of Life Sciences , Jiangxi Normal University , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330022 , China
| | - Zhong-Er Long
- College of Life Sciences , Jiangxi Normal University , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330022 , China
| | - Fei Wang
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, College of Bioscience and Bioengineering , Jiangxi Agricultural University , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330045 , China
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Aguero S, Terreux R. Degradation of High Energy Materials Using Biological Reduction: A Rational Way to Reach Bioremediation. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E5556. [PMID: 31703334 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20225556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Explosives molecules have been widely used since World War II, leading to considerable contamination of soil and groundwater. Recently, bioremediation has emerged as an environmentally friendly approach to solve such contamination issues. However, the 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX) explosive, which has very low solubility in water, does not provide satisfying results with this approach. In this study, we used a rational design strategy for improving the specificity of the nitroreductase from E. Cloacae (PDB ID 5J8G) toward HMX. We used the Coupled Moves algorithm from Rosetta to redesign the active site around HMX. Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations and affinity calculations allowed us to study the newly designed protein. Five mutations were performed. The designed nitroreductase has a better fit with HMX. We observed more H-bonds, which productively stabilized the HMX molecule for the mutant than for the wild type enzyme. Thus, HMX’s nitro groups are close enough to the reductive cofactor to enable a hydride transfer. Also, the HMX affinity for the designed enzyme is better than for the wild type. These results are encouraging. However, the total reduction reaction implies numerous HMX derivatives, and each of them has to be tested to check how far the reaction can’ go.
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More KN, Lim TH, Kang J, Yun H, Yee ST, Chang DJ. Asymmetric and Reduced Xanthene Fluorophores: Synthesis, Photochemical Properties, and Application to Activatable Fluorescent Probes for Detection of Nitroreductase. Molecules 2019; 24:E3206. [PMID: 31484448 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24173206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Xanthene fluorophores, including fluorescein, rhodol, and rhodamines, are representative classes of fluorescent probes that have been applied in the detection and visualization of biomolecules. “Turn on” activatable fluorescent probes, that can be turned on in response to enzymatic reactions, have been developed and prepared to reduce the high background signal of “always-on” fluorescent probes. However, the development of activity-based fluorescent probes for biological applications, using simple xanthene dyes, is hampered by their inefficient synthetic methods and the difficulty of chemical modifications. We have, thus, developed a highly efficient, versatile synthetic route to developing chemically more stable reduced xanthene fluorophores, based on fluorescein, rhodol, and rhodamine via continuous Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling. Their fluorescent nature was evaluated by monitoring fluorescence with variation in the concentration, pH, and solvent. As an application to activatable fluorescent probe, nitroreductase (NTR)-responsive fluorescent probes were also developed using the reduced xanthene fluorophores, and their fluorogenic properties were evaluated.
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Si Y, Basak S, Li Y, Merino J, Iuliano JN, Walker SG, Tonge PJ. Antibacterial Activity and Mode of Action of a Sulfonamide-Based Class of Oxaborole Leucyl-tRNA-Synthetase Inhibitors. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:1231-1238. [PMID: 31007018 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.9b00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Benzoxaboroles are a class of boron-containing compounds with a broad range of biological activities. A subset of benzoxaboroles have antimicrobial activity due primarily to their ability to inhibit leucyl-tRNA synthetase (LeuRS) via the oxaborole tRNA-trapping mechanism, which involves the formation of a stable tRNALeu-benzoxaborole adduct in which the boron atom interacts with the 2'- and 3'-oxygen atoms of the terminal 3' tRNA adenosine. We sought to identify other antibacterial targets for this promising class of compounds by means of mode-of-action studies, and we selected a nitrophenyl sulfonamide based oxaborole (PT638) as a probe molecule because it had potent antibacterial activity (MIC of 0.4 μg/mL against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) but did not inhibit LeuRS (IC50 > 100 μM). Analogues of PT638 were synthesized to explore the importance of the sulfonamide linker and the impact of altering the functionalization of the phenyl ring. These structure-activity-relationship studies revealed that the nitro substituent was essential for activity. To identify the target for PT638, we raised resistant strains of S. aureus, and whole-genome sequencing revealed mutations in leuRS, suggesting that the target for this compound was indeed LeuRS, despite the lack of enzyme inhibition. Subsequent analysis of PT638 metabolism demonstrated that bacterial nitroreductases readily converted this compound into the amino analogue, which inhibited LeuRS with an IC50 of 3.0 ± 1.2 μM, demonstrating that PT638 is thus a prodrug.
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Ryan LS, Gerberich J, Cao J, An W, Jenkins BA, Mason RP, Lippert AR. Kinetics-Based Measurement of Hypoxia in Living Cells and Animals Using an Acetoxymethyl Ester Chemiluminescent Probe. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1391-1398. [PMID: 31002225 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Oxygenation and tissue hypoxia play critical roles in mammalian biology and contribute to aggressive phenotypes in cancerous tumors, driving research to develop accurate and easy-to-implement methods for monitoring hypoxia in living cells and animal models. This study reports the chemiluminescent probe HyCL-4-AM, which contains a nitroaromatic sensing moiety and, importantly, an acetoxymethyl (AM) ester that dramatically improves operation in cells and animals. HyCL-4-AM provides a selective 60 000-fold increase in luminescence emission in the presence of rat liver microsomes (RLM). For cellular operation, the chemiluminescence response kinetics is sharply dependent on oxygen levels, enabling highly significant and reproducible measurement of hypoxia in living cells. Whole animal imaging experiments in muscle tissue and tumor xenografts show that HyCL-4-AM can differentiate between well oxygenated muscle tissue and hypoxic tumors, demonstrating potential for monitoring tumor reoxygenation via hyperoxic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeni Gerberich
- Prognostic Imaging Research Laboratory (PIRL), Pre-clinical Imaging Section, Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, United States
| | | | | | | | - Ralph P. Mason
- Prognostic Imaging Research Laboratory (PIRL), Pre-clinical Imaging Section, Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, United States
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Liu Z, Song F, Shi W, Gurzadyan G, Yin H, Song B, Liang R, Peng X. Nitroreductase-Activatable Theranostic Molecules with High PDT Efficiency under Mild Hypoxia Based on a TADF Fluorescein Derivative. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2019; 11:15426-15435. [PMID: 30945838 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b04488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
High specificity detection and site-specific therapy are still the main challenges for theranostic anticancer prodrugs. In this work, we reported two smart activatable theranostic molecules based on a thermally activated delayed fluorescence fluorescein derivative. Nitroreductase induced by a mild hypoxia microenvironment of a solid tumor was used to activate the fluorescence and photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficiency by employing the intramolecular photoinduced electron transfer mechanism. A high PDT efficiency under 10% oxygen concentration was achieved, which is better than that of porphyrin (PpIX), a traditional photosensitizer. Such an excellent PDT efficiency can be attributed to lysosome disruption because the theranostic molecule can specifically enter the lysosomes of cells. Importantly, the strategy of targeting the mild hypoxic cells in the edge of tumor tissue could heal the "Achilles' heel" of traditional PDT. We believe that this theranostic molecule has a high potential to be applied in clinical investigation as a theranostic anticancer prodrug.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fengling Song
- Institute of Molecular Sciences and Engineering , Shandong University , Qingdao 266237 , P. R. China
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Abstract
The pancreas plays important roles in the regulation of blood glucose, and is a well-studied organ in mammals because its dysfunction causes serious disorders, such as diabetes mellitus. However, mammals have the limited capacity for tissue regeneration in their organs, including pancreas. Fish may be an attractive model for regeneration studies, as fish exhibit a greater capacity for regeneration than do mammals. To elucidate the regenerative capacity of pancreatic β cells in medaka, we generated transgenic lines, in which β cells can be specifically ablated using the nitroreductase (NTR)/metronidazole (Mtz) system. We examined β-cell regeneration at embryonic-larval stages after specific ablation of β cells, and found that medaka rapidly regenerate β cells. Furthermore, we found that teleost-specific secondary islet have a unique feature in that their size increases in response to β-cell ablation in principal islets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayoshi Otsuka
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Takeda
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.,2 CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency
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Crofts TS, Sontha P, King AO, Wang B, Biddy BA, Zanolli N, Gaumnitz J, Dantas G. Discovery and Characterization of a Nitroreductase Capable of Conferring Bacterial Resistance to Chloramphenicol. Cell Chem Biol 2019; 26:559-570.e6. [PMID: 30799223 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Widespread antibiotic resistance has led to the reappraisal of abandoned antibiotics including chloramphenicol. However, enzyme(s) underlying one form of chloramphenicol resistance, nitroreduction, have eluded identification. Here we demonstrate that expression of the Haemophilus influenzae nitroreductase gene nfsB confers chloramphenicol resistance in Escherichia coli. We characterized the enzymatic product of H. influenzae NfsB acting on chloramphenicol and found it to be amino-chloramphenicol. Kinetic analysis revealed reduction of diverse substrates including the incomplete reduction of 5-nitro antibiotics metronidazole and nitrofurantoin, likely resulting in activation of these antibiotic pro-drugs to their cytotoxic forms. We observed that expression of the H. influenzae nfsB gene in E. coli results in significantly increased susceptibility to metronidazole. Finally, we found that in this strain metronidazole attenuates chloramphenicol resistance synergistically, and in vitro metronidazole weakly inhibits chloramphenicol reduction by NfsB. Our findings reveal the underpinnings of a chloramphenicol resistance mechanism nearly 70 years after its description.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terence S Crofts
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Pratyush Sontha
- The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Amber O King
- The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Brent A Biddy
- The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Nicole Zanolli
- The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - John Gaumnitz
- The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Gautam Dantas
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Edison Family Center for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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50
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Abstract
Many nanobiotechnology applications rely on stable and efficient integration of functional biomacromolecules with synthetic nanomaterials. Unfortunately, the reasons for the ubiquitous loss of activity of immobilized enzymes remain poorly understood due to the difficulty in distinguishing between distinct molecular-level mechanisms. Here, we employ complementary single-molecule fluorescence methods that independently measure the impact of immobilization on the structure and function ( i. e., substrate binding kinetics) of nitroreductase (NfsB). Stochastic statistical modeling methods were used to unambiguously quantify the effects of immobilized NfsB structural dynamics on function, allowing us to explicitly separate effects due to conformation and accessibility. Interestingly, we found that nonspecifically tethered NfsB exhibited enhanced stability compared to site-specifically tethered NfsB; however, the folded state of site-specifically tethered NfsB had faster substrate binding rates, suggesting improved active site accessibility. This demonstrated an unexpected intrinsic trade-off associated with competing bioconjugation methods, suggesting that it may be necessary to balance conformational stability versus active site accessibility. This nuanced view of the impact of immobilization will facilitate a rational approach to the integration of enzymes with synthetic nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F Kienle
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
| | - Rebecca M Falatach
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
| | - Joel L Kaar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
| | - Daniel K Schwartz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309 , United States
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