A mathematical model of the Gac/Rsm quorum sensing network in Pseudomonas fluorescens

Effect of Pseudomonas protegens EMM-1 Against Rhizopus oryzae in Interactions with Mexican Autochthonous Red Maize

In the present study, the strain Rhizopus oryzae EMM was isolated from germinated autochthonous red maize seeds, which were harvested in a region of San Diego-Buenavista, Papalotla, Tlaxcala, Mexico, where cobs with fungal infections have been observed. This fungal strain caused wilting in the maize seedlings. Pseudomonas protegens EMM-1 was tested for its ability to inhibit R. oryzae EMM, both in culture media and in association with maize plantlets. P. protegens EMM-1 inhibited the growth of R. oryzae EMM under all culture media conditions explored. The ability of P. protegens EMM-1 to inhibit the growth of R. oryzae EMM associated with plants was evaluated in both a hydroponic system and in vermiculite. In both systems, P. protegens EMM-1 strongly inhibited the growth of R. oryzae EMM. The dry weight of root plants infected with R. oryzae EMM and inoculated with P. protegens EMM-1 increased to 0.43 g, while that of plants infected only with R. oryzae EMM reached just 0.19 g under hydroponic conditions. However, no differences were observed under vermiculite conditions. The dry weight of the aerial region of plants infected with R. oryzae EMM and inoculated with P. protegens EMM-1 was greater than that of plants infected only with R. oryzae EMM, both under hydroponic and vermiculite conditions. These results indicate that P. protegens EMM-1 inhibits the infection caused by R. oryzae EMM, thereby improving plant growth. Moreover, the genome analysis of P. protegens EMM-1 revealed the presence of several genes that potentially encode for antimicrobial compounds, which could strengthen the potential use of P. protegens EMM-1 as a biocontrol agent in maize plants.

Experimental-Evolution-Driven Identification of Arabidopsis Rhizosphere Competence Genes in Pseudomonas protegens

Beneficial plant root-associated microorganisms carry out a range of functions that are essential for plant performance. Establishment of a bacterium on plant roots, however, requires overcoming several challenges, including competition with neighboring microorganisms and host immunity. Forward and reverse genetics have led to the identification of mechanisms that are used by beneficial microorganisms to overcome these challenges, such as the production of iron-chelating compounds, the formation of strong biofilms, or the concealment of characteristic microbial molecular patterns that trigger the host immune system. However, how such mechanisms arose from an evolutionary perspective is much less understood. To study bacterial adaptation in the rhizosphere, we employed experimental evolution to track the physiological and genetic dynamics of root-dwelling Pseudomonas protegens in the Arabidopsis thaliana rhizosphere under axenic conditions. This simplified binary one plant/one bacterium system allows for the amplification of key adaptive mechanisms for bacterial rhizosphere colonization. We identified 35 mutations, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms, insertions, and deletions, distributed over 28 genes. We found that mutations in genes encoding global regulators and in genes for siderophore production, cell surface decoration, attachment, and motility accumulated in parallel, underlining the finding that bacterial adaptation to the rhizosphere follows multiple strategies. Notably, we observed that motility increased in parallel across multiple independent evolutionary lines. All together, these results underscore the strength of experimental evolution in identifying key genes, pathways, and processes for bacterial rhizosphere colonization and a methodology for the development of elite beneficial microorganisms with enhanced root-colonizing capacities that can support sustainable agriculture in the future. IMPORTANCE Beneficial root-associated microorganisms carry out many functions that are essential for plant performance. Establishment of a bacterium on plant roots, however, requires overcoming many challenges. Previously, diverse mechanisms that are used by beneficial microorganisms to overcome these challenges were identified. However, how such mechanisms have developed from an evolutionary perspective is much less understood. Here, we employed experimental evolution to track the evolutionary dynamics of a root-dwelling pseudomonad on the root of Arabidopsis. We found that mutations in global regulators, as well as in genes for siderophore production, cell surface decoration, attachment, and motility, accumulate in parallel, emphasizing these strategies for bacterial adaptation to the rhizosphere. We identified 35 mutations distributed over 28 genes. All together, our results demonstrate the power of experimental evolution in identifying key pathways for rhizosphere colonization and a methodology for the development of elite beneficial microorganisms that can support sustainable agriculture.

Distinctive features of the Gac-Rsm pathway in plant-associated Pseudomonas

Productive plant-bacteria interactions, either beneficial or pathogenic, require that bacteria successfully sense, integrate and respond to continuously changing environmental and plant stimuli. They use complex signal transduction systems that control a vast array of genes and functions. The Gac-Rsm global regulatory pathway plays a key role in controlling fundamental aspects of the apparently different lifestyles of plant beneficial and phytopathogenic Pseudomonas as it coordinates adaptation and survival while either promoting plant health (biocontrol strains) or causing disease (pathogenic strains). Plant-interacting Pseudomonas stand out for possessing multiple Rsm proteins and Rsm RNAs, but the physiological significance of this redundancy is not yet clear. Strikingly, the components of the Gac-Rsm pathway and the controlled genes/pathways are similar, but the outcome of its regulation may be opposite. Therefore, identifying the target mRNAs bound by the Rsm proteins and their mode of action (repression or activation) is essential to explain the resulting phenotype. Some technical considerations to approach the study of this system are also given. Overall, several important features of the Gac-Rsm cascade are now understood in molecular detail, particularly in Pseudomonas protegens CHA0, but further questions remain to be solved in other plant-interacting Pseudomonas.

Virtual screening for quorum-sensing inhibitors of Pseudomonas fluorescens P07 from a food-derived compound database

AIMS

Pseudomonas fluorescens are important psychrotrophic food spoilage bacteria that are frequently detected in dairy, meat and aquatic products. Quorum sensing (QS) is an intercellular communication and gene regulation mechanism that enables bacteria to monitor their cell densities and regulate a variety of physiological processes. Hence, targeting the bacterial QS system might be a feasible approach to improve food quality and safety by regulating the spoilage caused by P. fluorescens.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, we screened a food-derived three-dimensional (3D) compound database to search for potential QS inhibitors (QSIs) with higher security. The 3D structures of LuxI- and LuxR-type proteins of P. fluorescens P07 were used as targets to screen for QSIs. A total of 25 compounds with high docking scores were tested for their anti-QS activities by indicator strains. The results show that 19 compounds possessed anti-QS activities. Among them, (+)-catechin had the strongest anti-QS activity. The results show that (+)-catechin significantly inhibited the production of extracellular enzymes, swimming motility, biofilm formation, acyl-homoserine lactones and extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) of P. fluorescens P07. The inhibitory mechanism of (+)-catechin on the QS system of P. fluorescens P07 was discussed in the context of molecular docking analysis and real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR).

CONCLUSIONS

Virtual screening was useful in finding novel QSIs with high security of P. fluorescens P07 from a food-derived 3D compound database. The high hit rate suggested that foods are rich sources of QSIs, and have great potential for exploration.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The modelled LuxI- and LuxR-type proteins could be used as targets to discover P. fluorescens P07 QSIs. (+)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin, propyl gallate, hesperidin and lycopene which were identified as potent QSIs, and may be applied in food preservation and biofilm elimination.

Bacteria Floc, but Do They Flock? Insights from Population Interaction Models of Quorum Sensing

Quorum sensing (QS) enables coordinated, population-wide behavior. QS-active bacteria "communicate" their number density using autoinducers which they synthesize, collect, and interpret. Tangentially, chemotactic bacteria migrate, seeking out nutrients and other molecules. It has long been hypothesized that bacterial behaviors, such as chemotaxis, were the primordial progenitors of complex behaviors of higher-order organisms. Recently, QS was linked to chemotaxis, yet the notion that these behaviors can together contribute to higher-order behaviors has not been shown. Here, we mathematically link flocking behavior, commonly observed in fish and birds, to bacterial chemotaxis and QS by constructing a phenomenological model of population-scale QS-mediated phenomena. Specifically, we recast a previously developed mathematical model of flocking and found that simulated bacterial behaviors aligned well with well-known QS behaviors. This relatively simple system of ordinary differential equations affords analytical analysis of asymptotic behavior and describes cell position and velocity, QS-mediated protein expression, and the surrounding concentrations of an autoinducer. Further, heuristic explorations of the model revealed that the emergence of "migratory" subpopulations occurs only when chemotaxis is directly linked to QS. That is, behaviors were simulated when chemotaxis was coupled to QS and when not. When coupled, the bacterial flocking model predicts the formation of two distinct groups of cells migrating at different speeds in their journey toward an attractant. This is qualitatively similar to phenomena spotted in our Escherichiacoli chemotaxis experiments as well as in analogous work observed over 50 years ago.IMPORTANCE Our modeling efforts show how cell density can affect chemotaxis; they help to explain the roots of subgroup formation in bacterial populations. Our work also reinforces the notion that bacterial mechanisms are at times exhibited in higher-order organisms.

Identification of natural product compounds as quorum sensing inhibitors in Pseudomonas fluorescens P07 through virtual screening

Pseudomonas fluorescens, a Gram-negative psychrotrophic bacteria, is the main microorganism causing spoilage of chilled raw milk and aquatic products. Quorum sensing (QS) widely exists in bacteria to monitor their population densities and regulate numerous physiological activities, such as the secretion of siderophores, swarming motility and biofilm formation. Thus, searching for quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs) may be another promising way to control the deterioration of food caused by P. fluorescens. Here, we screened a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) database to discover potential QSIs with lesser toxicity. The gene sequences of LuxI- and LuxR-type proteins of P. fluorescens P07 were obtained through whole-genome sequencing. In addition, the protein structures built by homology modelling were used as targets to screen for QSIs. Twenty-one compounds with a dock score greater than 6 were purchased and tested by biosensor strains (Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 and Agrobacterium tumefaciens A136). The results showed that 10 of the compounds were determined as hits (hit rate: 66.67%). Benzyl alcohol, rhodinyl formate and houttuynine were effective QSIs. The impact of the most active compound (benzyl alcohol) on the phenotypes of P. fluorescens P07, including swimming and swarming motility, production of extracellular enzymes and siderophores, N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHLs) content and biofilm formation were determined. The inhibitory mechanism of benzyl alcohol on the QS system of P. fluorescens P07 is further discussed. This study reveals the feasibility of searching for novel QSIs through virtual screening.

PmrA/PmrB Two-Component System Regulation of lipA Expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Pseudomonas lipases are well-studied, but few studies have examined the mechanisms of lipase expression regulation. As a global regulatory protein, PmrA controls the expression of multiple genes such as the Dot/Icm apparatus, eukaryotic-like proteins, and secreted effectors. In this study, the effect of PmrA on expression of the lipase lipA in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 was investigated by knocking out or overexpressing pmrA, rsmY, and rsmA. PmrA regulated the expression of lipA at both the transcriptional and translational level although translation was the pivotal regulatory mechanism for lipA expression. PmrA also regulated the expression of rsmY. Using gel mobility shift assay and pmrA/rsmY double gene knock-out model, we showed that PmrA directly bound to the promoter sequence of rsmY to regulate lipA expression. Translation of lipA was activated by the PmrA/PmrB system via RsmA. Specifically, the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence located at lipA mRNA was overlapped through combination between RsmA and the AGAUGA sequence, subsequently blocking the 30S ribosomal subunit to the SD sequence, leading to translational inhibition of lipA. Transcriptional repression of RsmY initiated translation of lipA through negative translational regulation of rsmA. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that in P. aeruginosa PAO1, PmrA mainly regulated rsmY expression at a translational level to influence lipA expression. RsmY primarily activated lipA translation via negative translational regulation of rsmA.

Mathematical Modelling of Bacterial Quorum Sensing: A Review

Bacterial quorum sensing (QS) refers to the process of cell-to-cell bacterial communication enabled through the production and sensing of the local concentration of small molecules called autoinducers to regulate the production of gene products (e.g. enzymes or virulence factors). Through autoinducers, bacteria interact with individuals of the same species, other bacterial species, and with their host. Among QS-regulated processes mediated through autoinducers are aggregation, biofilm formation, bioluminescence, and sporulation. Autoinducers are therefore "master" regulators of bacterial lifestyles. For over 10 years, mathematical modelling of QS has sought, in parallel to experimental discoveries, to elucidate the mechanisms regulating this process. In this review, we present the progress in mathematical modelling of QS, highlighting the various theoretical approaches that have been used and discussing some of the insights that have emerged. Modelling of QS has benefited almost from the onset of the involvement of experimentalists, with many of the papers which we review, published in non-mathematical journals. This review therefore attempts to give a broad overview of the topic to the mathematical biology community, as well as the current modelling efforts and future challenges.

The two-component GacS-GacA system activates lipA translation by RsmE but not RsmA in Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5

In Pseudomonas spp., the Gac-Rsm signal transduction system is required for the production of lipases. The current model assumes that the system induces lipase gene transcription mediated through the quorum-sensing (QS) system. However, there are no reports of a QS system based upon N-acyl homoserine lactones or the regulation of lipase gene expression in Pseudomonas protegens. In this study, we investigated the regulatory mechanism acting on lipA expression activated by the Gac-Rsm system in P. protegens Pf-5 through deletion and overexpression of gacA, overexpression of rsmA or rsmE, expression of various lacZ fusions, reverse transcription-PCR analysis, and determination of whole-cell lipase activity. The results demonstrated that the GacS-GacA (GacS/A) system activates lipA expression at both the transcriptional and the translational levels but that the translational level is the key regulatory pathway. Further results showed that the activation of lipA translation by the GacS/A system is mediated through RsmE, which inhibits lipA translation by binding to the ACAAGGAUGU sequence overlapping the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence of lipA mRNA to hinder the access of the 30S ribosomal subunit to the SD sequence. Moreover, the GacS/A system promotes lipA transcription through the mediation of RsmA inhibiting lipA transcription via an unknown pathway. Besides the transcriptional repression, RsmA mainly activates lipA translation by negatively regulating rsmE translation. In summary, in P. protegens Pf-5, the Gac-RsmE system mainly and directly activates lipA translation and the Gac-RsmA system indirectly enhances lipA transcription.

Evolutionary history predicts the stability of cooperation in microbial communities

Cooperation fundamentally contributes to the success of life on earth, but its persistence in diverse communities remains a riddle, as selfish phenotypes rapidly evolve and may spread until disrupting cooperation. Here we investigate how evolutionary history affects the emergence and spread of defectors in multispecies communities. We set up bacterial communities of varying diversity and phylogenetic relatedness and measure investment into cooperation (proteolytic activity) and their vulnerability to invasion by defectors. We show that evolutionary relationships predict the stability of cooperation: phylogenetically diverse communities are rapidly invaded by spontaneous signal-blind mutants (ignoring signals regulating cooperation), while cooperation is stable in closely related ones. Maintenance of cooperation is controlled by antagonism against defectors: cooperators inhibit phylogenetically related defectors, but not distant ones. This kin-dependent inhibition links phylogenetic diversity and evolutionary dynamics and thus provides a robust mechanistic predictor for the persistence of cooperation in natural communities.

Small RNAs as regulators of primary and secondary metabolism in Pseudomonas species

Small RNAs (sRNAs) exert important functions in pseudomonads. Classical sRNAs comprise the 4.5S, 6S, 10Sa and 10Sb RNAs, which are known in enteric bacteria as part of the signal recognition particle, a regulatory component of RNA polymerase, transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) and the RNA component of RNase P, respectively. Their homologues in pseudomonads are presumed to have analogous functions. Other sRNAs of pseudomonads generally have little or no sequence similarity with sRNAs of enteric bacteria. Numerous sRNAs repress or activate the translation of target mRNAs by a base-pairing mechanism. Examples of this group in Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the iron-repressible PrrF1 and PrrF2 sRNAs, which repress the translation of genes encoding iron-containing proteins, and PhrS, an anaerobically inducible sRNA, which activates the expression of PqsR, a regulator of the Pseudomonas quinolone signal. Other sRNAs sequester RNA-binding proteins that act as translational repressors. Examples of this group in P. aeruginosa include RsmY and RsmZ, which are central regulatory elements in the GacS/GacA signal transduction pathway, and CrcZ, which is a key regulator in the CbrA/CbrB signal transduction pathway. These pathways largely control the extracellular activities (including virulence traits) and the selection of the energetically most favourable carbon sources, respectively, in pseudomonads.