Selecting initial treatment of acute myeloid leukaemia in older adults

Comparative efficacy and safety in low-intensity treatment for acute myeloid leukemia in older patients: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common acute leukemia in adults, with a median age at diagnosis of 68 years. The outcomes in older or unfit AML patients on intensive chemotherapy are poor, and thus, it is necessary to explore alternative strategies. In recent years, non-intensive therapies have transformed the standard of care for this population. Despite the increasing number of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and cohort studies in this area, the optimal treatment approach remains unclear.

METHODS

We sourced four databases, PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science, until July 07, 2024, to identify all Phase II/III randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and cohort studies evaluating low-intensity treatments for older AML patients. Overall survival (OS), recurrence-free survival (RFS), complete remission (CR), complete remission with incomplete hematologic recovery (CRi), overall response rate (ORR), and adverse events (AEs) graded ≥ 3 were analyzed using a Bayesian fixed-effects network meta-analysis (NMA).

RESULTS

A total of 4920 patients across 26 trials were included. In terms of improving OS, AZA + VEN, LDAC + glasdegib, and LDAC + VEN (SUCRA = 0.936, 0.898, and 0.718, respectively) were the most effective treatments. For CR, ORR, and CRi, AZA + VEN ranked highest among all therapies (SUCRA = 0.836, 0.911, and 0.829, respectively).

CONCLUSION

This systematic review and network meta-analysis suggest that AZA + VEN is superior to the current standard of care, particularly in improving OS, CR, ORR, and CRi. LDAC + glasdegib also demonstrated promising efficacy and warrants further investigation.

Characteristics, outcomes and treatment patterns in acute myeloid leukemia patients 60 years or older in Colombia: a RENEHOC-PETHEMA study

There is a limited information available on the clinical characteristics, treatment patterns and outcomes on older patients diagnosed with Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) in Latin-America. This multicenter retrospective study analyzed 269 patients over 60 years of age diagnosed with AML in Colombia, using data from RENEHOC-PETHEMA registry, from 2009 to 2023. The median age at diagnosis was 70 years (Range:60-98), 55% were men, 61% had an ECOG < 2, and 75.5% had de novo AML. FLT3-ITD or NPM1 mutations were performed in 23.4% and 15.6% patients, and detected in 14.3% and 16.7% of cases, respectively. Treatment included intensive chemotherapy (IC) (36.8%), Low-Intensity Regimen Based on Low-Dose Cytarabine (LDAC-based) (12.6%), hypomethylating agents (HMAs, with/without venetoclax) (35.3%), and supportive care (15.2%). The overall survival (OS) rate was 35.2% at 1 year and 5.6% at 5 years (13.7% for IC, 9.4% for LDAC-based, and 0% for other treatments); with median OS of 8.2 months (10.6 months after IC, 8.8 months after non-IC, 8.9 months after azacitidine/decitabine, 8.2 months after azacitidine-venetoclax, and 1.9 months with supportive care). Only 1.5% of patients underwent a transplant in the first line. The Leukemia-free survival (LFS) rate was 45.8% at 1-year and 13.7% at 5-years (22.4% for IC, 9.4% and 0% for other treatments); with median LFS of 9.5 months (17.3 months after IC, 7.4 months after LDAC-based, and 10.8 months after HMA). This study provides new insights into the management of patients in Colombia, highlighting the need for a highly individualized approach in treating AML in elderly patients.

Reduced-toxicity conditioning regimen with low dose post-transplantation cyclophosphamide and low-dose anti-thymocyte globulin as graft-versus-host disease prophylaxis for haploidentical stem cell transplantation in older patients

Reduced-toxicity conditioning (RIC) regimens are used for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in older patients. However, successful outcomes are hindered by graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), treatment-related mortality, and relapse, particularly after haploidentical donor hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HID-HSCT). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an RIC conditioning regimen that included a combination of cyclosporin A, methotrexate (on day + 1), mycophenolate, lower doses of post-transplantation PTCy (40 mg/kg on day + 3), and ATG (7.5 mg/kg) as GVHD prophylaxis prior to haplo-stem cell transplantation (haplo-SCT) in older patients.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed outcomes in 55 patients ≥ 55 years of age with hematologic malignancies treated with fludarabine, cytarabine, busulfan, and low-dose cyclophosphamide as the conditioning regimen between January 1, 2019, and November 30, 2023.

RESULTS

Neutrophil engraftment was successful in all patients within 28 days, with 54 patients (98.2%) achieving complete donor chimerism. The cumulative incidence of non-relapse mortality was 0% at 30 days, 7.5% at 100 days, and 19% at 1 year. The cumulative incidence of grade II-IV acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) was 25% (95%CI, 15-38%), whereas that of grade III-IV aGVHD was 9.1% (95% CI, 3.3-19%). The cumulative incidence of extensive chronic graft-versus-host disease at 1 year was 3.6% (95%CI, 0.66-11%). The cumulative incidences of relapse, overall survival, and GVHD-free/relapse-free survival at 1 year were 9.0%, 71.6%, and 67.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

An RIC conditioning regimen, including a combination of lower PTCy/ATG as GVHD prophylaxis, followed by haplo-SCT, might be a promising option for appropriately selected older patients.

Low-dose decitabine for previously untreated acute myeloid leukemia ineligible for intensive chemotherapy aged 65 years or older: a prospective study based on comprehensive geriatric assessment

BACKGROUND

The outcome of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) aged ⩾65 years is poor. Effective treatment options are limited for patients with AML who cannot tolerate intensive chemotherapy.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of low-dose decitabine in previously untreated patients with AML aged ⩾65 years who were ineligible for intensive chemotherapy based on a comprehensive geriatric assessment.

DESIGN

We performed a prospective, multicenter, open-label, and non-randomized study.

METHODS

Patients were enrolled at four centers in Beijing between 1 January 2017 and 31 December 2020. They were treated with decitabine at a dose of 6 mg/m2 for 10 days. The treatment was repeated every 28 days for one cycle for a total of six cycles. The primary endpoint of our study was overall survival (OS) at the end of the first year after enrolment. The secondary endpoints included overall response rate, leukemia-free survival, relapse rate, treatment-related mortality (TRM), quality of life, safety, and transfusion dependence. Patients were continuously monitored for toxicity.

RESULTS

Overall, 47 patients (30 males and 17 females) participated in this study. The median age of the enrolled patients was 78 (range, 65-90) years. The median follow-up time was 22.2 (range, 4.6-38.8) months. Fifteen (31.9%) patients achieved complete remission (CR), 11 (23.4%) patients achieved partial remission, 3 (6.4%) patients achieved hematological improvement only, and 18 (38.3%) patients did not achieve remission. The median time to obtain CR was 2 months. The median CR was 8.5 months. Of the patients, 36 (76.6%) patients completed six cycles of treatment with low-dose decitabine, and the 1-year OS was 36.1%. According to instrumental activities of daily living scales, age, comorbidities, and albumin (IACA) scores, the median survival was 11.2 months in the unfit group and 6 months in the frail group. The 1-year OS rates in the unfit and frail groups were 49.2% and 23.4%, respectively. Grade ⩾3 non-hematological toxicity was observed in 70.2% (33/47) of the patients. TRM occurred in three patients. No early deaths occurred after treatment.

CONCLUSION

In newly diagnosed older patients with AML whose IACA assessment was unfit or frail for standard chemotherapy, treatment with low-dose decitabine demonstrated clinical activity and good security in our study.

Personalizing precision medicine: Patients with AML perceptions about treatment decisions

BACKGROUND

This study aims to explore patients' with acute myeloid leukemia perceptions about precision medicine and their preferences for involvement in this new area of shared decision-making.

METHODS

Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted in Finland, Italy and Germany (n = 16). The study population included patients aged 24-79 years. Interviews were analyzed with thematic content analysis.

RESULTS

Patient's perceived lack of knowledge as a barrier for their involvement in decision-making. Treatment decisions were often made rapidly based on the patient's intuition and trust for the physician rather than on information, in situations that decrease the patient's decision capacity. The patients emphasized that they are in a desperate situation that makes them willing to accept treatment with low probabilities of being cured.

CONCLUSIONS

The study raised important issues regarding patients' understanding of precision medicine and challenges concerning how to involve patients in medical decision-making. Although technical advances were viewed positively, the role of the physician as an expert and person-of-trust cannot be replaced.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Regardless of patients' preferences for involvement in decision-making, information plays a crucial role for patients' perceived involvement in their care. The concepts related to precision medicine are complex and will imply challenges to patient education.

Economic burden during remission and after relapse among older patients with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia without hematopoietic stem cell transplant: A retrospective study using the SEER-Medicare database

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is associated with a substantial clinical and economic burden. This study characterized the magnitude of this burden following initial treatment with standard or less intensive therapies (hypomethylating agents [HMAs]) and throughout different treatment phases post-remission. The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) cancer registry (2007-2016) linked with Medicare beneficiary claims (2007-2015) was analyzed. Patients were ≥ 65 years old with AML who initiated chemotherapy or HMAs and achieved remission. Outcomes included baseline characteristics, treatment patterns, clinical outcomes, healthcare resource utilization (HRU), and costs (2019 United States dollar). Economic impacts were stratified by treatment phase (initial treatment, early post-remission, late post-remission, and post-relapse). Early and late post-remission were defined as treatment initiated ≤ 60 days and > 60 days following initial treatment, respectively. A subgroup analysis of patients receiving only HMAs as initial treatment was also conducted. Overall, 530 patients were included (mean age: 74.1 years; 53.6 % male). In the overall analysis, 68.1 % of patients received post-remission treatment; 31.9% had no post-remission treatment. Mean monthly per patient healthcare costs by treatment phase were $45,747 (initial treatment), $30,248 (early post-remission), $23,173 (late post-remission), and $37,736 (post-relapse), driven predominantly by inpatient visits. The HMA subgroup analysis comprised 71 patients (mean age: 78.8 years; 50.7 % male); mean monthly per patient healthcare costs were highest post-relapse. The economic burden of AML among older patients is substantial across all treatment phases. AML treatments that induce and prolong remission may reduce HRU and the economic burden of disease.

A phase 1/2 study of azacitidine, venetoclax and pevonedistat in newly diagnosed secondary AML and in MDS or CMML after failure of hypomethylating agents

BACKGROUND

Pevonedistat is a first-in-class, small molecular inhibitor of NEDD8-activating enzyme that has clinical activity in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS). Preclinical data suggest synergy of pevonedistat with azacitidine and venetoclax.

METHODS

This single-center, phase 1/2 study evaluated the combination of azacitidine, venetoclax and pevonedistat in older adults with newly diagnosed secondary AML or with MDS or chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) after failure of hypomethylating agents. Patients received azacitidine 75 mg/m2 IV on days 1-7, venetoclax at maximum dose of 200-400 mg orally on days 1-21 (AML cohort) or days 1-14 (MDS/CMML cohort) and pevonedistat 20 mg/m2 IV on days 1, 3 and 5 for up to 24 cycles. The primary endpoints for the phase 2 portion of the study were the CR/CRi rate in the AML cohort and the overall response rate (CR + mCR + PR + HI) in the MDS/CMML cohort.

FINDINGS

Forty patients were enrolled (32 with AML and 8 with MDS/CMML). In the AML cohort, the median age was 74 years (range 61-86 years), and 27 patients (84%) had at least one adverse risk cyto-molecular feature, including 15 (47%) with a TP53 mutation or MECOM rearrangement; seventeen patients (53%) had received prior therapy for a preceding myeloid disorder. The CR/CRi rate was 66% (CR 50%; CRi 16%), and the median overall survival (OS) was 8.1 months. In the MDS/CMML cohort, 7 patients (87%) were high or very high risk by the IPSS-R. The overall response rate was 75% (CR 13%; mCR with or without HI 50%; HI 13%). The most common grade 3-4 adverse events were infection in 16 patients (35%), febrile neutropenia in 10 patients (25%) and hypophosphatemia in 9 patients (23%). In an exploratory analysis, early upregulation of NOXA expression was observed, with subsequent decrease in MCL-1 and FLIP, findings consistent with preclinical mechanistic studies of pevonedistat. Upregulation of CD36 was observed, which may have contributed to therapeutic resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

The triplet combination of azacitidine, venetoclax and pevonedistat shows encouraging activity in this very poor-risk population of patients with AML, MDS or CMML. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03862157).

Codelivery of BCL2 and MCL1 Inhibitors Enabled by Phenylboronic Acid-Functionalized Polypeptide Nanovehicles for Synergetic and Potent Therapy of Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most refractory hematologic malignancy characterized by acute onset, rapid progression, and high recurrence rate. Here, codelivery of BCL2 (ABT199) and MCL1 (TW37) inhibitors using phenylboronic acid-functionalized polypeptide nanovehicles to achieve synergetic and potent treatment of AML is adopted. Leveraging the dynamic boronic ester bonds, BN coordination, and π-π stacking, the nanovehicles reveal remarkably efficient and robust drug coencapsulation. ABT199 can induce a series of pro-apoptotic reactions by promoting the dissociation of the pro-apoptotic protein Bim from BCL2, while the released Bim is often captured by MCL1 protein overexpressed in AML. TW37 has a strong inhibitory ability to MCL1, thereby can restrain the depletion of Bim protein. Dual inhibitor-loaded nanoparticles (NPAT) reveal excellent stability, acid/enzyme/H₂ O₂ -triggered drug release, and significant cytotoxicity toward MOLM-13-Luc and MV-411 AML cells with low half maximal inhibitory concentrations of 1.15 and 7.45 ng mL^-1 , respectively. In mice bearing MOLM-13-Luc or MV-411 AML cancer, NPAT reveal significant inhibition of tumor cell infiltration in bone marrow and main organs, potent suppression of tumor growth, and remarkably elevated mouse survival. With facile construction, varying drug combination, superior safety, synergetic efficacy, the phenylboronic acid-functionalized smart nanodrugs hold remarkable potential for AML treatment.

Survival in Elderly Patients Diagnosed With Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Hospital-Based Study

Background

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a hematological neoplasm that is more frequent in elderly patients. The objective of this study was to evaluate elderly patients' survival with de novo AML and acute myeloid leukemia myelodysplasia-related (AML-MR), treated with intensive and less-intensive chemotherapy and supportive care.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was conducted in Fundacion Valle del Lili (Cali, Colombia), between 2013 and 2019. We included patients ≥ 60 years old diagnosed with AML. The statistical analysis considered the leukemia type (de novo vs. myelodysplasia-related) and treatment (intensive chemotherapy regimen, less-intensive chemotherapy regimen, and without chemotherapy). Survival analysis was performed using Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression models.

Results

A total of 53 patients were included (31 de novo and 22 AML-MR). Intensive chemotherapy regimens were more frequent in patients with de novo leukemia (54.8%), and 77.3% of patients with AML-MR received less-intensive regimens. Survival was higher in the chemotherapy group (P = 0.006), but with no difference between chemotherapy modalities. Additionally, patients without chemotherapy were 10 times more likely to die than those who received any regimen, independent of age, sex, Eastern Cooperative Oncology performance status, and Charlson comorbidity index (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 11.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.47 - 38.8).

Conclusions

Elderly patients with AML had longer survival time when receiving chemotherapy, regardless of the type of regimen.

How to improve the outcomes of elderly acute myeloid leukemia patients through allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

In recent years, with the gradual advancement of haploidentical transplantation technology, the availability of donors has increased significantly, along with the widespread use of reduced-intensity conditioning and the improvement of nursing techniques, giving more elderly acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients the chance to receive allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. We have summarized the classic and recently proposed pre-transplant assessment methods and assessed the various sources of donors, conditioning regimens, and post-transplant complication management based on the outcomes of large-scale clinical studies for elderly AML patients.

Profile of Glasdegib for the Treatment of Newly Diagnosed Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML): Evidence to Date

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an aggressive hematologic malignancy primarily affecting older adults. Historically, the highest rates of response have been achieved with intensive induction chemotherapy; however, a significant portion of older or unfit adults with AML are unable to tolerate intensive therapy or have chemotherapy-resistant disease, creating a large need for active and less intensive treatment strategies. Glasdegib, an oral inhibitor of the transmembrane protein Smoothened (SMO) involved in the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway, was approved in 2018 for older or unfit adults with AML and attained a role in clinical practice after showing an overall survival (OS) advantage when combined with the established agent low-dose cytarabine (LDAC). Since that time, however, several other highly active lower intensity therapies such as venetoclax plus a hypomethylating agent (HMA) have garnered a dominant role in the treatment of this patient population. In this review, we summarize the role of glasdegib in the current treatment landscape of newly diagnosed AML and discuss ongoing investigations into its role in novel combination therapies.

Combination regimen of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and recombinant human thrombopoietin improves the curative effect on elderly patients with leukemia through inducing pyroptosis and ferroptosis of leukemia cells

Leukemia ranks as the one of most common causes of death from tumor. 51.4% of patients with leukemia are over 65 years old. However, the median overall survival (OS) of elderly leukemia patients is less than one year. It is urgent to explore more effective treatments for elderly patients with leukemia. Our recent prospective phase II single-arm study has revealed that combination regimen of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and recombinant human thrombopoietin (rhTPO) could improve the curative effect on elderly patients with leukemia, yet the precise mechanism remains unknown. This study demonstrated that combination of G-CSF and rhTPO showed greater effect on suppressing leukemia growth than G-CSF or rhTPO alone in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, G-CSF induced pyroptosis through ELANE in leukemia cells. Besides, rhTPO triggered ferroptosis by EP300 in leukemia cells. Moreover, rhTPO suppressed glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression to induce ferroptosis through blocking the interaction between EP300 and GPX4 gene promoter via associating with EP300. In summary, this study illuminated that combination regimen of G-CSF and rhTPO improved the curative effect on elderly patients with leukemia through inducing pyroptosis and ferroptosis of leukemia cells. Therefore, our results provided a theoretical basis for combination regimen of G-CSF and rhTPO treating leukemia and potential therapeutic targets for leukemia.

Biomimetic design of inhibitors of immune checkpoint LILRB4

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have become a hot spot in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), the most common acute leukemia (blood cancer) in adults. In the present study, molecular insights into the molecular interactions between an immune checkpoint leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor b4 (LILRB4) and its mAb h128-3 was explored using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation for the biomimetic design of peptide inhibitor of LILRB4. Both hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction were found favorable for the binding of the mAb h128-3 on LILRB4, and hydrophobic interaction was identified as the main driving force. The key amino acid residues for the binding of mAb h128-3 on LILRB4 were identified as Y93, D94, D106, Y34, S103, W107, Y61, N30, E27, Y33, Y59, W95, S92 through MM-PBSA (molecular mechanics-Poisson-Boltzmann surface area) method. Based on this, an inhibitor library with the sequence of SXDXYXSY (Where X is an arbitrary amino acid residue) were designed. Two peptide inhibitors, SADHYHSY and SVDWYHSY were obtained through screening using molecular docking and MD simulations, and then validated by successful blocking of LILRB4 through the covering of LILRB4 surface by these inhibitors. These results would be helpful for the research and development of therapies for AML.

Terminal differentiation of bone marrow NK cells and increased circulation of TIGIT+ NK cells may be related to poor outcome in acute myeloid leukemia

AIM

In order to further understand the feature of natural killer cell (NK) dysfunction in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), The distribution of NK cell subset the expression of the inhibitory receptors immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT), killer cell lectin-like receptor (KLRG1), and the expression of maturation marker CD57 in NK cell subsets and their correlation with patient outcomes were analyzed in this study.

METHODS

We collected peripheral blood (PB) and bone marrow (BM) samples from de novo AML (AML-DN) patients, patients who achieved complete remission after chemotherapy (AML-CR), and healthy individuals. An eight-color flow cytometry panel was used to identify different NK subsets and their expression of TIGIT, CD57 and KLRG1.

RESULTS

Decreased percentage of CD56^dim CD16⁺ NK cells was found only in the PB of AML-DN and AML-CR patients but not in the BM. The expression frequency of TIGIT and KLRG1 was elevated on NK cells from the PB of AML-DN patients, while it was recovered in AML-CR patients. Moreover, a higher percentage of CD57⁺ CD56^dim CD16⁺ NK cells, representing a terminally differentiated NK subset with strong cytotoxic capacity but defective replication potential, was detected in the BM of AML-DN patients and predicted sub-optimal survival for patients.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the NK cell subsets in the PB of AML patients had an exhaustion phenotype, while the BM NK cells had a terminally differentiated phenotype, which correlated with short survival for AML patients.

Long-term survival after intensive chemotherapy or hypomethylating agents in AML patients aged 70 years and older: a large patient data set study from European registries

The outcome of acute myeloid leukemia patients aged 70 years or older is poor. Defining the best treatment option remains controversial especially when choosing between intensive chemotherapy and hypomethylating agents. We set up a multicentric European database collecting data of 3 700 newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia patients ≥70 years. The primary objective was to compare overall survival in patients selected for intensive chemotherapy (n = 1199) or hypomethylating agents (n = 1073). With a median follow-up of 49.5 months, the median overall survival was 10.9 (95% CI: 9.7–11.6) and 9.2 months (95% CI: 8.3–10.2) with chemotherapy and hypomethylating agents, respectively. Complete remission or complete remission with incomplete hematologic recovery was 56.1% and 19.7% with chemotherapy and hypomethylating agents, respectively (P < 0.0001). Treatment effect on overall survival was time-dependent. The Royston and Parmar model showed that patients treated with hypomethylating agents had a significantly lower risk of death before 1.5 months of follow-up; no significant difference between 1.5 and 4.0 months, whereas patients treated with intensive chemotherapy had a significantly better overall survival from four months after start of therapy. This study shows that intensive chemotherapy remains a valuable option associated with a better long-term survival in older AML patients.

The beginning of a new therapeutic era in acute myeloid leukemia

In the field of AML, the early 2000s were shaped by the advent of novel molecular biology technologies including high-throughput sequencing that improved prognostic classification, response evaluation through the quantification of minimal residual disease, and the launch of research on targeted therapies. Our knowledge of leukemogenesis, AML genetic diversity, gene-gene interactions, clonal evolution, and treatment response assessment has also greatly improved. New classifications based on chromosomal abnormalities and gene mutations are now integrated on a routine basis. These considerable efforts contributed to the discovery and development of promising drugs which specifically target gene mutations, apoptotic pathways and cell surface antigens as well as reformulate classical cytotoxic agents. In less than 2 years, nine novels drugs have been approved for the treatment of AML patients, and many others are being intensively investigated, in particular immune therapies. There are now numerous clinical research opportunities offered to clinicians, thanks to these new treatment options. We are only at the start of a new era which should see major disruptions in the way we understand, treat, and monitor patients with AML.

Evolving Therapeutic Approaches for Older Patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia in 2021

Simple Summary

The better understanding of disease biology, the availability of new effective drugs and the increased awareness of patients’ heterogeneity in terms of fitness and personal expectations has made the current treatment paradigm of AML in the elderly very challenging. Here, we discuss the evolving criteria used to define eligibility for induction chemotherapy and transplantation, the introduction of new agents in the treatment of patients with very different clinical conditions, the implications of precision medicine and the importance of quality of life and supportive care, proposing a simplified algorithm that we follow in 2021.

Abstract

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in older patients is characterized by unfavorable prognosis due to adverse disease features and a high rate of treatment-related complications. Classical therapeutic options range from intensive chemotherapy in fit patients, potentially followed by allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT), to hypomethylating agents or palliative care alone for unfit/frail ones. In the era of precision medicine, the treatment paradigm of AML is rapidly changing. On the one hand, a plethora of new targeted drugs with good tolerability profiles are becoming available, offering the possibility to achieve a prolonged remission to many patients not otherwise eligible for more intensive therapies. On the other hand, better tools to assess patients’ fitness and improvements in the selection and management of those undergoing allo-HCT will hopefully reduce treatment-related mortality and complications. Importantly, a detailed genetic characterization of AML has become of paramount importance to choose the best therapeutic option in both intensively treated and unfit patients. Finally, improving supportive care and quality of life is of major importance in this age group, especially for the minority of patients that are still candidates for palliative care because of very poor clinical conditions or unwillingness to receive active treatments. In the present review, we discuss the evolving approaches in the treatment of older AML patients, which is becoming increasingly challenging following the advent of new effective drugs for a very heterogeneous and complex population.

Dual Growth Factor (rhTPO + G-CSF) and Chemotherapy Combination Regimen for Elderly Patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Phase II Single-Arm Multicenter Study

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a disease affecting older adults, although optimal strategies for treating such patients remain unclear. This prospective phase II, open-label, multicenter study was designed to assess the efficacy and safety of two hematologic growth factors, recombinant human thrombopoietin (rhTPO) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), in combination with decitabine, cytarabine, and aclarubicin (D-CTAG regimen) to treat older adults with newly diagnosed AML (Identifier: NCT04168138). The above agents were administered as follows: decitabine (15 mg/m² daily, days 1–5); low-dose cytarabine (10 mg/m² q12 h, days 3–9); rhTPO (15,000 U daily, days 2, 4, 6, 8, 10–24 or until >50×10⁹/L platelets); aclarubicin (14 mg/m² daily, days 3–6); and G-CSF (300 μg daily, days 2–9). We concurrently monitored historic controls treated with decitabine followed by cytarabine, aclarubicin, and G-CSF (D-CAG) only. After the first D-CTAG cycle, the overall response rate (ORR) was 84.2% (16/19), including 13 (73.7%) complete remissions (CRs) and three (15.8%) partial remissions. This CR rate surpassed that of the D-CAG treatment (p < 0.05). Median overall survival (OS) time in the D-CTAG group was 20.2 months (range, 4–31 months), compared with 14 months in the D-CAG group, and 1-year OS was 78%. The proportion of those experiencing grade III–IV thrombocytopenia was significantly lower for D-CTAG (57.9%) than for D-CAG (88.4%; p < 0.05). Ultimately, the curative effect of adding rhTPO was not inferior to that of D-CAG, and D-CTAG proved safer for elderly patients, especially in terms of hematologic toxicity. A prospective phase III randomized study is warranted to confirm these observations.

Impact of Physicians' Personalities and Behavioral Traits on Treatment-Related Decision-making for Elderly Acute Myeloid Leukemia

BACKGROUND

Elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) can be treated with intensive therapy, low-intensity therapy, or best supportive care. Medical decision-making might be affected by physicians' occupational and non-occupational factors.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the impact of physicians' personalities and behavioral traits on treatment-related decision-making for elderly AML patients.

DESIGN

A nationwide cross-sectional survey.

PARTICIPANTS

Hematologists in mainland China (N = 529; response rate 64.5%).

MAIN MEASURES

The medical decision-making for elderly AML patients was evaluated using 6 clinical vignettes. Hematologists' attitudes toward risk and uncertainty, Big Five personality traits, and decision-making styles were assessed using binary lottery choices and well-recognized self-report inventories.

KEY RESULTS

The resulting binary regression model in predicting treatment intensity contained professional title group (OR = 0.012, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.136, P < 0.001), conscientiousness (OR = 0.336, 95% CI 0.121 to 0.932, P = 0.036), extraversion (OR = 0.403, 95% CI 0.166 to 0.974, P = 0.044), conscientiousness by title group (OR = 2.009, 95% CI 1.100 to 3.667, P = 0.023), and extraversion by title group (OR = 1.627, 95% CI 0.965 to 2.743, P = 0.068) as predictors of therapy intensity preference. Junior physicians with a higher level of extraversion (mean difference = 0.27; 95% CI 0.07 to 0.45; P = 0.009) or conscientiousness (mean difference = 0.19; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.36; P = 0.028) tended to prescribe more intensive therapy. Meanwhile, no significant correlation was found between physicians' personalities or behavioral traits and treatment-related decision-making in senior physicians.

CONCLUSIONS

Physicians' personalities contribute to treatment-related decision-making for elderly AML patients, depending on the professional titles. More extravert or conscientious attending physicians tended to prescribe more intensive therapy. Meanwhile, the decisions made by chief and associate chief physicians were not impacted by their personal traits. Junior physicians should be aware of such potential influence when making medical decisions.

Hypomethylating Agents (HMAs) as Salvage Therapy in Relapsed or Refractory AML: An Italian Multicentric Retrospective Study

Data on the use of azacytidine and decitabine as salvage therapy for acute myeloid leukemia are limited. We retrospectively reviewed clinical records of 100 patients treated with hypomethylating agents (HMA) as salvage therapy in nine Italian institutions. A total of 24% of patients obtained a response to HMA (CR, PR, or CRi), while 26% showed a stable disease (SD); 50% of patients experienced progressive disease. Median OS was 6.5 months. OS in patients with de novo AML was 6.1 months, while OS in patients with secondary AML (sAML) was 12.3 months (p = 0.037). Median OS after HMA in patients with SD as best response to HMA was similar to median OS in patients with response to HMA (10.6 months vs. 13 months). On multivariate analysis, OS difference between patients who obtained a response versus patients who did not was significant (p = 0.0037). OS difference in sAML was significantly better than in de novo AML (p < 0.00001). HMA showed a remarkable efficacy in terms of response rate and OS in a subgroup of patients (sAMLs), historically characterized by a poor outcome. Therefore, 5Azacitidine and decitabine may represent a good clinical option in a selected patient population with relapsed or refractory AML, unsuitable for allo-HSCT.

Minimally myelosuppressive regimen for remission induction in pediatric AML: long-term results of an observational study

Treatment refusal and death as a result of toxicity account for most treatment failures among children with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in resource-constrained settings. We recently reported the results of treating children with AML with a combination of low-dose cytarabine and mitoxantrone or omacetaxine mepesuccinate with concurrent granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) (low-dose chemotherapy [LDC]) for remission induction followed by standard postremission strategies. We have now expanded the initial cohort and have provided long-term follow-up. Eighty-three patients with AML were treated with the LDC regimen. During the study period, another 100 children with AML received a standard-dose chemotherapy (SDC) regimen. Complete remission was attained in 88.8% and 86.4% of patients after induction in the LDC and SDC groups, respectively (P = .436). Twenty-two patients in the LDC group received SDC for the second induction course. Significantly more high-risk AML patients were treated with the SDC regimen (P = .035). There were no significant differences between the LDC and SDC groups in 5-year event-free survival (61.4% ± 8.7% vs 65.2% ± 7.4%, respectively; P = .462), overall survival (72.7% ± 6.9% vs 72.5% ± 6.2%, respectively; P = .933), and incidence of relapse (20.5% ± 4.5% vs 17.6% ± 3.9%, respectively; P = .484). Clearance of mutations based on the average variant allele frequency at complete remission in the LDC and SDC groups was 1.9% vs 0.6% (P < .001) after induction I and 0.17% vs 0.078% (P = .052) after induction II. In conclusion, our study corroborated the high remission rate reported for children with AML who received at least 1 course of LDC. The results, although preliminary, also suggest that long-term survival of these children is comparable to that of children who receive SDC regimens.

Patterns of care and clinical outcomes with cytarabine-anthracycline induction chemotherapy for AML patients in the United States

Cytarabine-anthracycline based intensive induction chemotherapy (IC) remains the standard of care for remission induction among fit patients with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in the United States (US). However, the mortality rate outside of clinical IC trials, predictors of death, and resource utilization during admission for IC have not been thoroughly examined. We used the Premier Healthcare database to identify adult patients (aged 18-89 years) treated with cytarabine-anthracycline-based IC during their first recorded inpatient stay for AML during the contemporary period of 2010 to 2017. We identified factors associated with inpatient death or discharge to hospice, using multivariable logistic regression models. We also assessed the patterns of inpatient healthcare resource utilization. A total of 6442 patients with AML from 313 hospitals who were treated with IC were identified. Median age was 61 years (interquartile range [IQR], 50-68 years), and 56% were men. Median length of stay was 29 (IQR, 25-38) days, with rates of in-hospital death and discharge to hospice of 12.3% and 3.7% (17.9% and 6.3% among patients aged ≥65 years), respectively. Predictors of in-hospital death or discharge to hospice included older age, geographic region, and lower hospital volume. During admission, 28.0%, 12.6%, and 4.0% of patients required treatment in intensive care units, mechanical ventilation, and dialysis, respectively. Despite improvements in supportive care in the contemporary era, inpatient mortality during first hospitalization for adult patients with AML treated with IC in the US remains high particularly among older patients.

A novel treatment regimen of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor combined with ultra-low-dose decitabine and low-dose cytarabine in older patients with acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes

Background:

Older patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) unfit for intensive chemotherapy are emergent for suitable treatment strategies. Hypomethylating agents and low-dose cytarabine have generated relevant benefits in the hematological malignancies over recent decades. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of the novel treatment regimen consisting of ultra-low-dose decitabine and low-dose cytarabine, with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in this population of patients.

Methods and materials:

Patients aged more than 60 years with newly diagnosed AML/MDS were enrolled to receive therapy combined of 300 µg subcutaneously per day for priming, decitabine 5.15–7.62 mg/m²/d intravenously and cytarabine 15 mg/m²/d twice a day subcutaneously and G-CSF for consecutive 10 days every 28 days. The study enrolled 28 patients unfit for standard intensive chemotherapy. The median age of patients was 68 years (range 60–83 years) and 20 (71.4%) patients harbored AML. The primary outcome was to evaluate overall response rate.

Results:

Overall, this novel ultra-low-dose treatment regimen was well tolerated, with 0% of both 4- and 8-week mortality occurrence. Objective response rate (CR + CRi + PR in AML and CR + mCR + PR in MDS) was 57.1% after the first treatment course. Responses of hematologic improvement (HI) aspect were achieved in 18 of 28 (64.3%) patients, 11 (39.3%), 12 (42.9%), and eight patients (28.6%) achieved HI-E, HI-P, HI-N, respectively.

Conclusions:

Untreated elderly with AML/MDS were well tolerated and benefited from this novel ultra-low-dose treatment regimen.

Current Use of Total Body Irradiation in Haploidentical Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Total body irradiation (TBI) is included in the conditioning regimen for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), with unique advantages such as uniform distribution over the whole body and decreased exposure to cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents. For individuals who lack matched sibling or matched unrelated donors, the use of haploidentical donors has been increasing despite challenges such as graft rejection and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Although a limited number of studies have been performed to assess the clinical role of TBI in haploidentical HSCT, TBI-based conditioning showed comparable results in terms of survival outcomes, rate of relapse, and GVHD in diverse hematologic malignancies such as leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. Advances in supportive care, along with recent technical improvements such as restriction of maximum tolerated dose, appropriate fractionation, and organ shielding, help to overcome diverse adverse events related to TBI. Post-transplantation cyclophosphamide was used in most studies to reduce the risk of GVHD. Additionally, it was found that post-transplantation rituximab may improve outcomes in TBI-based haploidentical HSCT, especially in patients with B-cell lymphoma. Along with the advances of techniques and strategies, the expansion of age restriction would be another important issue for TBI-based haploidentical HSCT considering the current tendency toward increasing age limitation and lack of matched donors. This review article summarizes the current use and future perspectives of TBI in haploidentical HSCT.

Haploidentical Stem Cell Transplantation With a Novel Conditioning Regimen in Older Patients: A Prospective Single-Arm Phase 2 Study

Objective: Haploidentical stem cell transplantation (haplo-SCT) has demonstrated encouraging results in younger patients. There is also an increasing need for haplo-SCT in older patients. However, the high risk of treatment-related mortality (TRM) in older patients is still a major concern. We aimed to investigate a novel conditioning regimen (Bu/Flu/Cy/ATG) followed by haplo-SCT in older patients.

Method: This prospective, single-arm clinical trial was performed at Peking University Institute of Hematology, China. Patients were enrolled if they were (1) diagnosed with acute leukemia or MDS; (2) without MSD and MUD, and with HID available; and (3) age ≥55 years. The Bu/Flu/Cy/ATG regimen consisted of the following agents: Ara-C (2 g/m²/day, injected i.v.) on days-10 and−9; BU (9.6 mg/kg, injected i.v. in 12 doses) on days-8,−7, and−6; Flu (30 mg/m²/day, injected i.v.) from day−6 to day−2; Cy (1 g/m²/day, injected i.v.) on days−5 and−4; semustine (250 mg/m², orally) on day-3 and antithymocyte globulin (ATG) [2.5 mg/kg/day, rabbit, SangStat (Lyon, France)] on days−5,−4,−3, and−2. The primary endpoint was 1-year TRM.

Results: From April 1, 2018 to April 10, 2020, a total of 50 patients were enrolled. All patients achieved neutrophil engraftment with complete donor chimerism. The cumulative incidence of grade 2-4 aGVHD at day-100 was 22.0%. The cumulative incidences of CMV viremia and EBV viremia on day 100 were 68.0 and 20.0%, respectively. The cumulative incidence of TRM at 1-year was 23.3%. and the cumulative incidence of relapse (CIR) at 1 year after transplantation was 16.5%. The overall survival (OS) and leukemia-free survival (LFS) at 1 year were 63.5 and 60.2%, respectively. The outcomes were also comparable with patients who received Bu/Cy/ATG regimen using a propensity score matching method.

Conclusions: In conclusion, this study suggested that a novel conditioning regimen followed by haploidentical HSCT might be a promising option for older patients. The study was registered as a clinical trial.

Clinical Trial Registration:www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03412409.

Secular trends in the incidence and survival of all leukemia types in the United States from 1975 to 2017

Background: Various studies have indicated that the prognosis of leukemia has been improved in recent years, but the secular trends of incidence and long-term survival of all leukemia have not been thoroughly examined.

Methods: We estimated the leukemia incidence and 5-year survival rate along with the temporal trends by sex, race, age, and subtype in the United States over the past four decades using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database.

Results: The overall incidence of leukemia steadily increased from 12.39/100 000 in 1975 to 14.65/100 000 in 2011, and then began to decline in recent years (13.73/100 000 in 2017), with average annual percent changes (APC) of 0.350 (P<0.001). The 5-year relative survival rate of leukemia patients significantly improved from 33.2% in 1975 to 66.1% in 2012 (APC=1.980, P<0.001). The main subtypes of leukemia, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and chronic myeloid leukemia, increased in most age groups; conversely, the incidences of all other subtypes were gradually declined during the monitoring period. The incremental advancement in leukemia prognosis had been achieved in almost all histological subtypes, especially among young patients.

Conclusions: Based on SEER data, the leukemia incidence increased gradually over the past decades, and then began to decline in recent years in the United States. The 5-year relative survival rate increased incrementally over time, especially among young patients. However, the huge disparities among different sexes, races, histological subtypes, and age groups, emphasize that precise causes control and innovative treatments need to be developed to reduce the incidence and improve the prognosis, especially among specific populations.

Exploring the determinants that influence hospital costs of induction therapy for acute myeloid leukemia

The financial burden of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients is substantial. We retrospectively analyzed the hospital costs of the first induction therapy for 353 newly diagnosed AML patients who were admitted to our hospital from January 2013 to December 2018. We found the median hospital costs were estimated at 110,291.8 RMB. Multivariate analysis showed that length of hospital stay was the leading determinant affecting hospital costs (p < 0.0001), followed by length of agranulocytosis days (p < 0.01), but for the patients who failed to achieve complete remission (CR), length of hospital stay was the independent factor contributing to hospital costs. Besides, patients achieving CR had similar hospital costs to the patients failing to achieve CR. The hospital costs of low-intensity chemotherapy might not be lower than that of intensive chemotherapy.

Integrated transcriptomic and genomic analysis improves prediction of complete remission and survival in elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia

Relevant molecular tools for treatment stratification of patients ≥65 years with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are lacking. We combined clinical data with targeted DNA- and full RNA-sequencing of 182 intensively and palliatively treated patients to predict complete remission (CR) and survival in AML patients ≥65 years. Intensively treated patients with NPM1 and IDH2^R172 mutations had longer overall survival (OS), whereas mutated TP53 conferred lower CR rates and shorter OS. FLT3-ITD and TP53 mutations predicted worse OS in palliatively treated patients. Gene expression levels most predictive of CR were combined with somatic mutations for an integrated risk stratification that we externally validated using the beatAML cohort. We defined a high-risk group with a CR rate of 20% in patients with mutated TP53, compared to 97% CR in low-risk patients defined by high expression of ZBTB7A and EEPD1 without TP53 mutations. Patients without these criteria had a CR rate of 54% (intermediate risk). The difference in CR rates translated into significant OS differences that outperformed ELN stratification for OS prediction. The results suggest that an integrated molecular risk stratification can improve prediction of CR and OS and could be used to guide treatment in elderly AML patients.

Epigenetic therapies in acute myeloid leukemia: the role of hypomethylating agents, histone deacetylase inhibitors and the combination of hypomethylating agents with histone deacetylase inhibitors

Epigenetic regulation includes changes of DNA methylation and modifications of histone proteins and is essential for normal physiologic functions, especially for controlling gene expression. Epigenetic dysregulation plays a key role in disease pathogenesis and progression of some malignancies, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Epigenetic therapies, including hypomethylating agents (HMAs) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, were developed to reprogram the epigenetic abnormalities in AML. However, the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic effects of the two agents alone or their combination remain unknown. An overview of these epigenetic therapies is given here. A literature search was conducted through PubMed database, looking for important biological or clinical studies related to the epigenetic regimens in the treatment of AML until October 15th, 2019. Various types of articles, including original research and reviews, were assessed, identified, and eventually summarized as a collection of data pertaining the mechanisms and clinical effects of HMAs and HDAC inhibitors in AML patients. We provided here an overview of the current understanding of the mechanisms and clinical therapeutic effects involved in the treatment with HMAs and HDAC inhibitors alone, the combination of epigenetic therapies with intensive chemotherapy, and the combination of both types of epigenetic therapies. Relevant clinical trials were also discussed. Generally speaking, the large number of studies and their varied outcomes demonstrate that effects of epigenetic therapies are heterogeneous, and that HMAs combination regimens probably contribute to significant response rates. However, more research is needed to explore therapeutic effects of HDAC inhibitors and various combinations of HMAs and HDAC inhibitors.

Age at Diagnosis and Patient Preferences for Treatment Outcomes in AML: A Discrete Choice Experiment to Explore Meaningful Benefits

BACKGROUND

The recent expansion of treatment options in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has necessitated a greater understanding of patient preferences for treatment benefits, about which little is known.

METHODS

We sought to quantify and assess heterogeneity of the preferences of AML patients for treatment outcomes. An AML-specific discrete choice experiment (DCE) was developed involving multiple stakeholders. Attributes included in the DCE were event-free survival (EFS), complete remission (CR), time in the hospital, short-term side effects, and long-term side effects. Continuously coded conditional, stratified, and latent-class logistic regressions were used to model preferences of 294 patients with AML.

RESULTS

Most patients were white (89.4%) and in remission (95.0%). A 10% improvement in the chance of CR was the most meaningful offered benefit (P < 0.001). Patients were willing to trade up to 22 months of EFS or endure 8.7 months in the hospital or a two-step increase in long-term side effects to gain a 10% increase in chance of CR. Patients diagnosed at 60 years or older (21.6%) more strongly preferred to avoid short-term side effects (P = 0.03). Latent class analysis showed significant differences of preferences across gender and insurance status.

CONCLUSIONS

In this national sample of mostly AML survivors, patients preferred treatments that maximized chance at remission; however, significant preference heterogeneity for outcomes was identified. Age and gender may affect patients' preferences.

IMPACT

Survivor preferences for outcomes can inform patient-focused drug development and shared decision-making. Further studies are necessary to investigate the use of DCEs to guide treatment for individual patients.

Therapeutic Choice in Older Patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Matter of Fitness

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), with an incidence increasing with age, is the most common acute leukemia in adults. Concurrent comorbidities, mild to severe organ dysfunctions, and low performance status (PS) are frequently found in older patients at the onset, conditioning treatment choice and crucially influencing the outcome. Although anthracyclines plus cytarabine-based chemotherapy, also called “7 + 3” regimen, remains the standard of care in young adults, its use in patients older than 65 years should be reserved to selected cases because of higher incidence of toxicity. These adverse features of AML in the elderly underline the importance of a careful patient assessment at diagnosis as a critical tool in the decision-making process of treatment choice. In this review, we will describe selected recently approved drugs as well as examine prognostic algorithms that may be helpful to assign treatment in elderly patients properly.

Minimal residual disease may be an early prognostic indicator for newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia patients induced by decitabine-based chemotherapy

Objectives: To analyze the efficacy and safety of decitabine combined with low/reduced-dose chemotherapy in newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients unfit for intensive therapy and to investigate the early prognostic indicators for these patients. Methods: The eligible patients treated with decitabine-based chemotherapy were retrospectively analyzed. Responses and long-term survival were calculated and their correlation with clinical characteristics was analyzed. Minimal residual disease (MRD) detected by flow cytometry (FCM) after the induction therapy was measured, and the association with prognosis was explored. Results: Fifty-five newly diagnosed AML patients were enrolled. The overall response rate (ORR) was 80.0%, with a complete remission (CR) rate of 63.64% and partial remission (PR) rate of 16.36%. Grade 4 hematological toxicity was common, and the incidence of infections was 83.64%, with 18.18% of patients suffered from severe infections. No serious bleeding or non-hematological adverse events occurred. Treatment-related mortality was 3.64%. The median overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were 17.0 (13.7-20.3) months and 17.0 (10.2-23.8) months, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed that an advanced age (≥ 60 years) and higher MRD (≥ 1.34%) after induction therapy were adverse prognostic factors for patients who had achieved CR. Conclusions: Decitabine-based chemotherapy may be a suitable therapeutic alternative for newly diagnosed AML patients who are unfit for intensive chemotherapy. An advanced age (≥ 60 years) and higher MRD (≥ 1.34%) were considered adverse prognostic factors.

Immunosuppression and Immunotargeted Therapy in Acute Myeloid Leukemia - The Potential Use of Checkpoint Inhibitors in Combination with Other Treatments

INTRODUCTION

Immunotherapy by using checkpoint inhibitors is now tried in the treatment of several malignancies, including Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML). The treatment is tried both as monotherapy and as a part of combined therapy.

METHODS

Relevant publications were identified through literature searches in the PubMed database. We searched for (i) original articles describing the results from clinical studies of checkpoint inhibition; (ii) published articles describing the immunocompromised status of AML patients; and (iii) published studies of antileukemic immune reactivity and immunotherapy in AML.

RESULTS

Studies of monotherapy suggest that checkpoint inhibition has a modest antileukemic effect and complete hematological remissions are uncommon, whereas combination with conventional chemotherapy increases the antileukemic efficiency with acceptable toxicity. The experience with a combination of different checkpoint inhibitors is limited. Thalidomide derivatives are referred to as immunomodulatory drugs and seem to reverse leukemia-induced immunosuppression, but in addition, they have direct inhibitory effects on the AML cells. The combination of checkpoint targeting and thalidomide derivatives thus represents a strategy for dual immunotargeting together with a direct antileukemic effect.

CONCLUSION

Checkpoint inhibitors are now tried in AML. Experimental studies suggest that these inhibitors should be combined with immunomodulatory agents (i.e. thalidomide derivatives) and/or new targeted or conventional antileukemic treatment. Such combinations would allow dual immunotargeting (checkpoint inhibitor, immunomodulatory agents) together with a double/triple direct targeting of the leukemic cells.

Isoliquiritigenin, an Orally Available Natural FLT3 Inhibitor from Licorice, Exhibits Selective Anti-Acute Myeloid Leukemia Efficacy In Vitro and In Vivo

Licorice is a medicinal herb widely used to treat inflammation-related diseases in China. Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) is an important constituent of licorice and possesses multiple bioactivities. In this study, we examined the selective anti-AML (acute myeloid leukemia) property of ISL via targeting FMS-like tyrosine kinase-3 (FLT3), a certified valid target for treating AML. In vitro, ISL potently inhibited FLT3 kinase, with an IC50 value of 115.1 ± 4.2 nM, and selectively inhibited the proliferation of FLT3-internal tandem duplication (FLT3-ITD) or FLT3-ITD/F691L mutant AML cells. Moreover, it showed very weak activity toward other tested cell lines or kinases. Western blot immunoassay revealed that ISL significantly inhibited the activation of FLT3/Erk1/2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) signal in AML cells. Meanwhile, a molecular docking study indicated that ISL could stably form aromatic interactions and hydrogen bonds within the kinase domain of FLT3. In vivo, oral administration of ISL significantly inhibited the MV4-11 flank tumor growth and prolonged survival in the bone marrow transplant model via decreasing the expression of Ki67 and inducing apoptosis. Taken together, the present study identified a novel function of ISL as a selective FLT3 inhibitor. ISL could also be a potential natural bioactive compound for treating AML with FLT3-ITD or FLT3-ITD/F691L mutations. Thus, ISL and licorice might possess potential therapeutic effects for treating AML, providing a new strategy for anti-AML.

Long-term cardiac-specific mortality among 44,292 acute myeloid leukemia patients treated with chemotherapy: a population-based analysis

Background: Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a common hematological malignancy treated with regimens containing anthracycline, an agent with cardiotoxicity. However, the cardiac-specific mortality in AML patients receiving chemotherapy remains unknown.

Methods: In this population-based study, patients diagnosed with AML between 1973 and 2015 were identified in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database. Cumulative mortality by cause of death was calculated. To quantify the excessive cardiac-specific death compared with the general population, standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated. Multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to identify risk factors associated with cardiac-specific death and AML-specific death.

Results: A total of 64,679 AML patients were identified between 1973 and 2015; 68.48% of patients (44,292) received chemotherapy. Among all possible competing causes of death, AML was associated with the highest cumulative mortality. The AML patients who received chemotherapy showed excessive cardiac-specific mortality compared with the general population, with an SMR of 6.35 (95% CI: 5.89-6.82). Age, year of diagnosis, sex, and marital status were independently associated with patient prognosis.

Conclusion: Cardiac-specific mortality in AML patients receiving chemotherapy is higher than that in the general population.

Temporal patterns and predictors of receiving no active treatment among older patients with acute myeloid leukemia in the United States: A population-level analysis

BACKGROUND

The majority of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are aged >65 years at the time of diagnosis and are not actively treated. The objective of the current study was to determine the prevalence, temporal trends, and factors associated with no active treatment (NAT) among older patients with AML in the United States.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed of Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-Medicare data from 14,089 patients with AML residing in the United States who were diagnosed with AML at age ≥66 years during 2001 through 2013. NAT was defined as not receiving any chemotherapy, including hypomethylating agents. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze sociodemographic, clinical, and provider characteristics associated with NAT.

RESULTS

The percentage of patients with NAT decreased over time from 59.7% among patients diagnosed in 2001 to 42.8% among those diagnosed in 2013. The median overall survival for the entire cohort was 82 days from the time of diagnosis. Patients treated with NAT had worse survival compared with those receiving active treatment. Variables found to be associated with higher odds of NAT included older age, certain sociodemographic characteristics (household income within the lowest quartile, residence outside the Northeast region of the United States, and being unmarried), and clinical factors (≥3 comorbidities, the presence of mental disorders, recent hospitalization, and disability).

CONCLUSIONS

Greater than one-half of older patients with AML residing in the United States do not receive any active leukemia-directed therapy despite the availability of lower intensity therapies such as hypomethylating agents. Lack of active therapy receipt is associated with inferior survival. Identifying predictors of NAT might improve the quality of care and survival in this patient population, especially as novel therapeutic options with lower toxicity are becoming available.

The Epidemiological Trend of Acute Myeloid Leukemia in Childhood: a Population-Based Analysis

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the fifth most common malignancy in children, and the prognosis for AML in children remains relatively poor. However, its incidence and survival trends based on a large sample size have not been reported.

Children diagnosed with AML between 1975 and 2014 were accessed from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database. Incidence and survival trends were evaluated by age-adjusted incidence and relative survival rates (RSRs) and Kaplan-Meier analyses. Cox regression was performed to identify independent risk factors for child AML death.

The overall incidence of AML in childhood increased each decade between 1975 and 2014, with the total age-adjusted incidence increasing from 5.766 to 6.615 to 7.478 to 7.607 per 1,000,000 persons. In addition, the relative survival rates of AML in childhood improved significantly, with 5-year RSRs increasing from 22.40% to 39.60% to 55.50% to 68.30% over the past four decades (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, survival disparities among different races and socioeconomic statuses have continued to widen over the past four decades. Multivariate Cox regression analyses showed a higher risk of death in Black patients (HR = 1.245, 95% CI: 1.077-1.438, p = 0.003) with Whites as a reference.

These results may help predict future trends for AML in childhood, better design clinical trials by eliminating disparities, and ultimately improve clinical management and outcome.

Differentiation agents increase the potential AraC therapy of AML by reactivating cell death pathways without enhancing ROS generation

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has a poor prognosis and requires new approaches for treatment. We have reported that a combination of vitamin D-based cell differentiation agents (doxercalciferol/carnosic acid [D2/CA]) added following the cytotoxic drug arabinocytosine (AraC) increases AML cell death (CD), a model for improved therapy of this disease. Because AraC-induced CD is known to involve reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, here we investigated if the modulation of cellular REDOX status plays a role in the enhancement of cell death (ECD) by D2/CA. Using thiol antioxidants, such as N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), we found a significant inhibition of ECD, yet this occurred in the absence of any detectable change in cellular ROS levels. In contrast, NAC reduced the vitamin D receptor (VDR) abundance and its signaling of ECD. Importantly, VDR knockdown and NAC similarly inhibited ECD without producing an additive effect. Thus, the proposed post-AraC therapy may be compromised by agents that reduce VDR levels in AML blasts.

Epidemiology of acute myeloid leukemia: Recent progress and enduring challenges

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a malignant disorder of the bone marrow which is characterized by the clonal expansion and differentiation arrest of myeloid progenitor cells. The age-adjusted incidence of AML is 4.3 per 100,000 annually in the United States (US). Incidence increases with age with a median age at diagnosis of 68 years in the US. The etiology of AML is heterogeneous. In some patients, prior exposure to therapeutic, occupational or environmental DNA-damaging agents is implicated, but most cases of AML remain without a clear etiology. AML is the most common form of acute leukemia in adults and has the shortest survival (5-year survival = 24%). Curative therapies, including intensive chemotherapy and allogeneic stem cell transplantation, are generally applicable to a minority of patients who are younger and fit, while most older individuals exhibit poor prognosis and survival. Differences in patient outcomes are influenced by disease characteristics, access to care including active therapies and supportive care, and other factors. After many years without therapeutic advances, several new therapies have been approved and are expected to impact patient outcomes, especially for older patients and those with refractory disease.

MDM2 antagonists as a novel treatment option for acute myeloid leukemia: perspectives on the therapeutic potential of idasanutlin (RG7388)

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a clonal heterogenous malignancy of the myeloid cells with a poor prognosis lending itself to novel treatment strategies. TP53 is a critical tumor suppressor and plays an essential role in leukemogenesis. Although TP53 is relatively unusual in de novo AML, inactivation of wild-type p53 (WT-p53) is a common event. Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) is a key negative regulator of p53 and its expression; inhibition of MDM2 is postulated to reactivate WT-p53 and its tumor suppressor functions. Nutlins were the first small molecule inhibitors that bind to MDM2 and target its interaction with p53. RG7388 (idasanutlin), a second-generation nutlin, was developed to improve upon the potency and toxicity profile of earlier nutlins. Preliminary data from early phase trials and ongoing studies suggest clinical response with RG7388 (idasanutlin) both in monotherapy and combination strategies in AML. We herein briefly discuss currently approved therapies in AML and review the clinical data for RG7388 (idasanutlin) and MDM2 inhibition as novel treatment strategies in AML. We further describe efficacy and toxicity profile data from completed and ongoing trials of RG7388 (idasanutlin) and other MDM2-p53 inhibitors in development. Many targeted therapies have been approved recently in AML, with a focus on the older and unfit population for intensive induction therapy and in relapsed/refractory disease. The "nutlins", including RG7388 (idasanutlin), merit continued investigation in such settings.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Novel Combinations and Therapeutic Targets

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Immune checkpoint therapy has dramatically changed the therapeutic landscape of solid malignancies. Here, we review the scientific rationale and current data evaluating immune checkpoint inhibitors in acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

RECENT FINDINGS

Immune checkpoint inhibitor monotherapy has shown limited clinical activity in AML. Initial results from early-phase clinical trials suggest that rational combinations of immune checkpoint inhibition with hypomethylating agents (HMAs) are safe and potentially more promising. There are currently no data directly comparing immune checkpoint inhibition to standard therapies. Emerging immune targets more specific for leukemia cells including LILRB4 may improve future therapeutic efficacy. The success of immune checkpoint inhibition in AML has been modest to date. However, an improved understanding of the biology and the use of rational combinations has potential to improve rates of durable responses. Multiple clinical trials in AML are currently evaluating the use of immune checkpoints alone and in combination.

Hypomethylating agents in relapsed and refractory AML: outcomes and their predictors in a large international patient cohort

Although hypomethylating agents (HMAs) are frequently used in the frontline treatment of older acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients, little is known about their effectiveness in relapsed or primary treatment-refractory (RR)-AML. Using an international multicenter retrospective database, we studied the effectiveness of HMAs in RR-AML and evaluated for predictors of response and overall survival (OS). A total of 655 patients from 12 centers received azacitidine (57%) or decitabine (43%), including 290 refractory (44%) and 365 relapsed (56%) patients. Median age at diagnosis was 65 years. Best response to HMAs was complete remission (CR; 11%) or CR with incomplete count recovery (CRi; 5.3%). Additionally, 8.5% experienced hematologic improvement. Median OS was 6.7 months (95% confidence interval, 6.1-7.3). As expected, OS differed significantly by best response, with patients achieving CR and CRi having a median OS of 25.3 and 14.6 months, respectively. In multivariate analysis, the presence of ≤5% circulating blasts and a 10-day schedule of decitabine were associated with improved response rates, whereas the presence of >5% circulating blasts and >20% bone marrow blasts were associated with decreased OS. A significant subset of RR-AML patients (16%) achieved CR/CRi with HMAs and experienced a median OS of 21 months. Outside of a clinical trial, HMAs represent a reasonable therapeutic option for some patients with RR-AML.

Current Therapeutic Results and Treatment Options for Older Patients with Relapsed Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Considerable progress has been made in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, current therapeutic results are still unsatisfactory in untreated high-risk patients and poorer in those with primary refractory or relapsed disease. In older patients, reluctance by clinicians to treat unfit patients, higher AML cell resistance related to more frequent adverse karyotype and/or precedent myelodysplastic syndrome, and preferential involvement of chemorefractory early hemopoietic precursors in the pathogenesis of the disease further account for poor prognosis, with median survival lower than six months. A general agreement exists concerning the administration of aggressive salvage therapy in young adults followed by allogeneic stem cell transplantation; on the contrary, different therapeutic approaches varying in intensity, from conventional salvage chemotherapy based on intermediate⁻high-dose cytarabine to best supportive care, are currently considered in the relapsed, older AML patient population. Either patients' characteristics or physicians' attitudes count toward the process of clinical decision making. In addition, several new drugs with clinical activity described as "promising" in uncontrolled single-arm studies failed to improve long-term outcomes when tested in larger randomized clinical trials. Recently, new agents have been approved and are expected to consistently improve the clinical outcome for selected genomic subgroups, and research is in progress in other molecular settings. While relapsed AML remains a tremendous challenge to both patients and clinicians, knowledge of the molecular pathogenesis of the disease is fast in progress, potentially leading to personalized therapy in most patients.

Epigenetic therapy combinations in acute myeloid leukemia: what are the options?

Epigenetics refers to the regulation of gene expression mainly by changes in DNA methylation and modifications of histone proteins without altering the actual DNA sequence. While epigenetic modifications are essential for normal cell differentiation, several driver mutations in leukemic pathogenesis have been identified in genes that affect epigenetic processes, such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation. Several therapeutic options to target epigenetic alterations in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) have been successfully tested in preclinical studies and various drugs have already been approved for use in clinical practice. Among these already approved therapeutics are hypomethylating agents (azacitidine and decitabine) and isocitrate dehydrogenase inhibitors (ivosidenib, enasidenib). Other agents such as bromodomain-containing epigenetic reader proteins and histone methylation (e.g. DOT1L) inhibitors are currently in advanced clinical testing. As several epigenetic therapies have only limited efficacy when used as single agents, combination therapies that target AML pathogenesis at different levels and exploit synergistic mechanisms are also in clinical trials. Combinations of either epigenetic therapies with conventional chemotherapy, different forms of epigenetic therapies, or epigenetic therapies with immunotherapy are showing promising early results. In this review we summarize the underlying pathophysiology and rationale for epigenetically-based combination therapies, review current preclinical and clinical data and discuss the future directions of epigenetic therapy combinations in AML.

Nobiletin Down-Regulates c-KIT Gene Expression and Exerts Antileukemic Effects on Human Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Nobiletin, a dietary citrus flavonoid, has been reported to possess several biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the antileukemic effects of nobiletin and its underlying mechanisms on human acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. We demonstrated that nobiletin (0-100 μM) significantly reduced cell viability from 100.0 ± 9.6% to 31.1 ± 2.8% in human AML THP-1 cell line. Nobiletin arrested cell cycle progression in G1 phase and induced myeloid cell differentiation in human AML cells. Microarray analysis showed that mRNA expression of the c- KIT gene, a critical proto-oncogene associated with leukemia progression, was dramatically reduced in nobiletin-treated AML cells. Furthermore, we verified that AML cells treated with nobiletin (40 and 80 μM) for 48 h markedly suppressed c-KIT mRNA expression (from 1.00 ± 0.07-fold to 0.62 ± 0.08- and 0.30 ± 0.05-fold) and reduced the level of c-KIT protein expression (from 1.00 ± 0.11-fold to 0.60 ± 0.15- and 0.34 ± 0.05-fold) by inhibition of KIT promoter activity. The knockdown of c-KIT expression by shRNA attenuated cancer cell growth and induced cell differentiation. Moreover, we found that the overexpression of c-KIT abolished nobiletin-mediated cell growth inhibition in leukemia cells. These results indicate that nobiletin exerts antileukemic effects through the down-regulation of c-KIT gene expression in AML cells. Finally, we demonstrated that the combination of a conventional AML chemotherapeutic agent, cytarabine, with nobiletin resulted in more reduction of cell viability in AML cells. Our current findings suggest that nobiletin is a novel c-KIT inhibitor and may serve as a chemo-preventive or -therapeutic agent against human AML.