Taurine activates strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors in neurons of the rat inferior colliculus

Time-dependent effects of acoustic trauma and tinnitus on extracellular levels of amino acids in the inferior colliculus of rats

Chronic tinnitus is a debilitating condition with very few management options. Acoustic trauma that causes tinnitus has been shown to induce neuronal hyperactivity in multiple brain areas in the auditory pathway, including the inferior colliculus. This neuronal hyperactivity could be attributed to an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. However, it is not clear how the levels of neurotransmitters, especially neurotransmitters in the extracellular space, change over time following acoustic trauma and the development of tinnitus. In the present study, a range of amino acids were measured in the inferior colliculus of rats during acoustic trauma as well as at 1 week and 5 months post-trauma using in vivo microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography. Amino acid levels in response to sound stimulation were also measured at 1 week and 5 months post-trauma. It was found that unilateral exposure to a 16 kHz pure tone at 115 dB SPL for 1 h caused immediate hearing loss in all the animals and chronic tinnitus in 58 % of the animals. Comparing to the sham condition, extracellular levels of GABA were significantly increased at both the acute and 1 week time points after acoustic trauma. However, there was no significant difference in any of the amino acid levels measured between sham, tinnitus positive and tinnitus negative animals at 5 months post-trauma. There was also no clear pattern in the relationship between neurochemical changes and sound frequency/acoustic trauma/tinnitus status, which might be due to the relatively poorer temporal resolution of the microdialysis compared to electrophysiological responses.

Neural Marker Expression in Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Grown in PEG-Based 3D Matrix Is Enhanced in the Presence of B27 and CultureOne Supplements

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) have incredible potential as an avenue to better understand and treat neurological disorders. While they have been successfully differentiated into neural stem cells and neurons, most such protocols involve 2D environments, which are not representative of in vivo physiology. In this study, human ADSCs were cultured in 1.1 kPa polyethylene-glycol 3D hydrogels for 10 days with B27, CultureOne (C1), and N2 neural supplements to examine the neural differentiation potential of ADSCs using both chemical and mechanical cues. Following treatment, cell viability, proliferation, morphology, and proteome changes were assessed. Results showed that cell viability was maintained during treatments, and while cells continued to proliferate over time, proliferation slowed down. Morphological changes between 3D untreated cells and treated cells were not observed. However, they were observed among 2D treatments, which exhibited cellular elongation and co-alignment. Proteome analysis showed changes consistent with early neural differentiation for B27 and C1 but not N2. No significant changes were detected using immunocytochemistry, potentially indicating a greater differentiation period was required. In conclusion, treatment of 3D-cultured ADSCs in PEG-based hydrogels with B27 and C1 further enhances neural marker expression, however, this was not observed using supplementation with N2.

Taurine Supplementation as a Neuroprotective Strategy upon Brain Dysfunction in Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes

Obesity, type 2 diabetes, and their associated comorbidities impact brain metabolism and function and constitute risk factors for cognitive impairment. Alterations to taurine homeostasis can impact a number of biological processes, such as osmolarity control, calcium homeostasis, and inhibitory neurotransmission, and have been reported in both metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders. Models of neurodegenerative disorders show reduced brain taurine concentrations. On the other hand, models of insulin-dependent diabetes, insulin resistance, and diet-induced obesity display taurine accumulation in the hippocampus. Given the possible cytoprotective actions of taurine, such cerebral accumulation of taurine might constitute a compensatory mechanism that attempts to prevent neurodegeneration. The present article provides an overview of brain taurine homeostasis and reviews the mechanisms by which taurine can afford neuroprotection in individuals with obesity and diabetes. We conclude that further research is needed for understanding taurine homeostasis in metabolic disorders with an impact on brain function.

Inhibitory role of taurine in the caudal neurosecretory Dahlgren cells of the olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus

Taurine plays role in neural development and physiological functions such as endocrine regulation in the central nervous system (CNS), and it is one of the most abundant free amino acid there. We investigated its potential effect as a neurotransmitter in the group of neuroendocrine Dahlgren cells at flounder Paralichthys olivaceus caudal neurosecretory system (CNSS). The application of taurine in vitro led to a reduction in electrical activity of Dahlgren cells, followed by a rise in the number of silent cells, at the same time the frequency of all three activity patterns (tonic, phasic, bursting) in Dahlgren cells was reduced. Both strychnine (a glycine receptor antagonist) and bicuculline (a GABA_A receptor antagonist) can block the response to taurine separately. Transcriptome sequencing analysis showed the existence of glycine receptor (GlyR) and GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR) in the flounder CNSS, and the GlyR, GABA_AR, and Cl^- channel mRNA expression were significantly raised after taurine superfusion according to quantitative RT-PCR results. These data indicate that taurine may mediate Dahlgren cell population of CNSS activity in vivo through GlyR and GABA_AR, thereby, regulating stress-response.

Taurine Transporter dEAAT2 is Required for Auditory Transduction in Drosophila

Drosophila dEAAT2, a member of the excitatory amino-acid transporter (EAAT) family, has been described as mediating the high-affinity transport of taurine, which is a free amino-acid abundant in both insects and mammals. However, the role of taurine and its transporter in hearing is not clear. Here, we report that dEAAT2 is required for the larval startle response to sound stimuli. dEAAT2 was found to be enriched in the distal region of chordotonal neurons where sound transduction occurs. The Ca2+ imaging and electrophysiological results showed that disrupted dEAAT2 expression significantly reduced the response of chordotonal neurons to sound. More importantly, expressing dEAAT2 in the chordotonal neurons rescued these mutant phenotypes. Taken together, these findings indicate a critical role for Drosophila dEAAT2 in sound transduction by chordotonal neurons.

Effects of hypotaurine on substantia gelatinosa neurons of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis in immature mice

To understand the action and mechanism of hypotaurine, an immediate precursor of taurine, on orofacial nociceptive processing, we examined the direct effects and receptor types involved in hypotaurine-induced responses using the whole-cell patch clamp technique in the substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) of immature mice. Under the condition of high-chloride pipette solution, hypotaurine elicited inward currents or upward deflections of membrane potential, which increased in a concentration-dependent manner (30-3000 μM) with the EC₅₀ of 663.8 and 337.6 μM, respectively. The responses to 300 µM hypotaurine were reproducible and recovered upon washout. The 300 µM hypotaurine-induced currents were maintained in the presence of TTX, CNQX, and AP5, indicating direct postsynaptic action of hypotaurine on SG neurons. Responses to both low (300 µM) and high (1 or 3 mM) concentrations of hypotaurine were completely and reversibly blocked by the glycine receptor antagonist strychnine (2 µM), but unaffected by the GABA_A receptor antagonist gabazine (3 µM) which blocks synaptic GABA_A receptors at low concentration. Furthermore, responses to 300 µM hypotaurine and a maximal concentration of glycine (3 mM) were not additive, indicating that hypotaurine and glycine act on the same receptor. Hypotaurine-induced currents were partially antagonized by picrotoxin (50 µM) which blocks homomeric glycine receptors and by bicuculline (10 µM) which is an antagonist of α2 subunit-containing glycine receptors. These results suggest that hypotaurine-induced responses were mediated by glycine receptor activation in the SG neurons and hypotaurine might be used as an effective therapeutics for orofacial pain.

Taurine activates delayed rectifier Kv channels via a metabotropic pathway in retinal neurons

Taurine is one of the most abundant amino acids in the retina, throughout the CNS, and in heart and muscle cells. In keeping with its broad tissue distribution, taurine serves as a modulator of numerous basic processes, such as enzyme activity, cell development, myocardial function and cytoprotection. Despite this multitude of functional roles, the precise mechanism underlying taurine's actions has not yet been identified. In this study we report findings that indicate a novel role for taurine in the regulation of voltage-gated delayed rectifier potassium (K(V)) channels in retinal neurons by means of a metabotropic receptor pathway. The metabotropic taurine response was insensitive to the Cl(-) channel blockers, picrotoxin and strychnine, but it was inhibited by a specific serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor antagonist, MDL11939. Moreover, we found that taurine enhanced K(V) channels via intracellular protein kinase C-mediated pathways. When 5-HT(2A) receptors were expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, taurine and AL34662, a non-specific 5-HT(2) receptor activator, produced a similar regulation of K(IR) channels. In sum, this study provides new evidence that taurine activates a serotonin system, apparently via 5-HT(2A) receptors and related intracellular pathways.

Interaction between taurine and GABA(A)/glycine receptors in neurons of the rat anteroventral cochlear nucleus

Taurine, one of the most abundant endogenous amino acids in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), is involved in neural development and many physiological functions. In this study, the interaction between taurine and GABA(A)/glycine receptors was investigated in young rat (P13-P15) anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) neurons using the whole-cell patch-clamp method. We found that taurine at low (0.1mM) and high (1mM) concentrations activated both GABA(A) and glycine receptors, but not AMPA and NMDA receptors. The reversal potentials of taurine-, GABA- or glycine-evoked currents were close to the expected chloride equilibrium potential, indicating that receptors activated by these agonists were mediating chloride conductance. Moreover, our results showed that the currents activated by co-application of GABA and glycine were cross-inhibitive. Sequential application of GABA and glycine or vice versa also reduced the glycine or GABA evoked currents. There was no cross-inhibition when taurine and GABA or taurine and glycine were applied simultaneously, but the response was larger than that evoked by GABA or glycine alone. These results suggest that taurine can serve as a neuromodulator to strengthen GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmission in the rat AVCN.

Targeting inhibitory neurotransmission in tinnitus

Tinnitus perception depends on the presence of its neural correlates within the auditory neuraxis and associated structures. Targeting specific circuits and receptors within the central nervous system in an effort to relieve the perception of tinnitus and its impact on one's emotional and mental state has become a focus of tinnitus research. One approach is to upregulate endogenous inhibitory neurotransmitter levels (e.g., glycine and GABA) and selectively target inhibitory receptors in key circuits to normalize tinnitus pathophysiology. Thus, the basic functional and molecular properties of two major ligand-gated inhibitory receptor systems, the GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) and glycine receptor (GlyR) are described. Also reviewed is the rationale for targeting inhibition, which stems from reported tinnitus-related homeostatic plasticity of inhibitory neurotransmitter systems and associated enhanced neuronal excitability throughout most central auditory structures. However, the putative role of the medial geniculate body (MGB) in tinnitus has not been previously addressed, specifically in terms of its inhibitory afferents from inferior colliculus and thalamic reticular nucleus and its GABA(A)R functional heterogeneity. This heterogeneous population of GABA(A)Rs, which may be altered in tinnitus pathology, and its key anatomical position in the auditory CNS make the MGB a compelling structure for tinnitus research. Finally, some selective compounds, which enhance tonic inhibition, have successfully ameliorated tinnitus in animal studies, suggesting that the MGB and, to a lesser degree, the auditory cortex may be their primary locus of action. These pharmacological interventions are examined in terms of their mechanism of action and why these agents may be effective in tinnitus treatment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Tinnitus Neuroscience.

Taurine in the anterior cingulate cortex diminishes neuropathic nociception: A possible interaction with the glycineA receptor

Taurine is an inhibitory amino-acid which has been proposed as a nociceptive process neuromodulator. The glycine(A) receptor (glyR(A)) has been postulated as a receptor in which taurine exerts its function. Functional image studies have documented the role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in the affective component of pain. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of taurine as a glycinergic agonist in the ACC using a neuropathic pain model related to autotomy behaviour (AB). In order to test whether glyR(A) is responsible for taurine actions, we microinjected strychnine, a glyR(A) antagonist. We used taurine microinjected into the ACC, followed by a thermonociceptive stimulus and a sciatic denervation. Chronic nociception was measured by the autotomy score, onset and incidence. The administration of taurine 7 days after denervation modifies the temporal course of AB by inhibiting it. Our results showed a decreased autotomy score and incidence in the taurine groups, as well as a delay in the onset. Those experimental groups in which strychnine was microinjected into the ACC, either on its own or before the microinjection of taurine, showed no difference as compared to the control group. When taurine was microinjected prior to strychnine, the group behaved as if only taurine had been administered. Our results evidence a significant neuropathic nociception relief measured as an AB decrease by the microinjection of taurine into the ACC. Besides, the role of the glyR(A) is evidenced by the fact that strychnine antagonises the antinociceptive effect of taurine.

The effect of supplemental dietary taurine on tinnitus and auditory discrimination in an animal model

Loss of central inhibition has been hypothesized to underpin tinnitus and impact auditory acuity. Taurine, a partial agonist at inhibitory glycine and γ-amino butyric acid receptors, was added to the daily diet of rats to examine its effects on chronic tinnitus and normal auditory discrimination. Eight rats were unilaterally exposed once to a loud sound to induce tinnitus. The rats were trained and tested in an operant task shown to be sensitive to tinnitus. An equivalent unexposed control group was run in parallel. Months after exposure, 6 of the exposed rats showed significant evidence of chronic tinnitus. Two concentrations of taurine in drinking water were given over several weeks (attaining average daily doses of 67 mg/kg and 294 mg/kg). Water consumption was unaffected. Three main effects were obtained: (1) The high taurine dose significantly attenuated tinnitus, which returned to near pre-treatment levels following washout. (2) Auditory discrimination was significantly improved in unexposed control rats at both doses. (3) As indicated by lever pressing, taurine at both doses had a significant group-equivalent stimulant effect. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that taurine attenuates tinnitus and improves auditory discrimination by increasing inhibitory tone and decreasing noise in the auditory pathway.

Reciprocal regulation between taurine and glutamate response via Ca2+-dependent pathways in retinal third-order neurons

Although taurine and glutamate are the most abundant amino acids conducting neural signals in the central nervous system, the communication between these two neurotransmitters is largely unknown. This study explores the interaction of taurine and glutamate in the retinal third-order neurons. Using specific antibodies, both taurine and taurine transporters were localized in photoreceptors and Off-bipolar cells, glutamatergic neurons in retinas. It is possible that Off-bipolar cells release juxtaposed glutamate and taurine to activate the third-order neurons in retina. The interaction of taurine and glutamate was studied in acutely dissociated third-order neurons in whole-cell patch-clamp recording and Ca²⁺ imaging. We find that taurine effectively reduces glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ influx via ionotropic glutamate receptors and voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels in the neurons, and the effect of taurine was selectively inhibited by strychnine and picrotoxin, but not GABA receptor antagonists, although GABA receptors are present in the neurons. A CaMKII inhibitor partially reversed the effect of taurine, suggesting that a Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent pathway is involved in taurine regulation. On the other hand, a rapid influx of Ca²⁺ through ionotropic glutamate receptors could inhibit the amplitude and kinetics of taurine-elicited currents in the third-order neurons, which could be controlled with intracellular application of BAPTA a fast Ca²⁺ chelator. This study indicates that taurine is a potential neuromodulator in glutamate transmission. The reciprocal inhibition between taurine and glutamate in the postsynaptic neurons contributes to computation of visual signals in the retinal neurons.

Intracisternal or intrathecal glycine, taurine, or muscimol inhibit bicuculline-induced allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in mice

AIM

To investigate the effects of GABA and glycine on analgesia in the central nervous system.

METHODS

Glycine, taurine, or muscimol was injected with bicuculline into the cistern magna or the lumbar subarachnoidal space in ICR mice. The effects on bicuculline-induced allodynia in a touch-evoked agitation test and on pain threshold index in a hot-plate test were assessed.

RESULTS

The dosages of the amino acids administered with bicuculline had no effect on motor behavior in conscious mice. Glycine or muscimol reduced bicuculline-induced allodynia regardless of the administration site, whereas intrathecal taurine reduced bicuculline-induced allodynia. Glycine, taurine, and muscimol all antagonized the effects induced by bicuculline in the hot-plate test, regardless of the administration site.

CONCLUSION

Glycine, taurine, and muscimol were found to have anti-allodynic and anti-thermal hyperalgesic properties in vivo. These observations suggest an interaction between glycine and GABA receptors during the regulation of antinociception.

Taurine is a potent activator of extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors in the thalamus

Taurine is one of the most abundant free amino acids in the brain. In a number of studies, taurine has been reported to activate glycine receptors (Gly-Rs) at moderate concentrations (> or = 100 microM), and to be a weak agonist at GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)-Rs), which are usually activated at high concentrations (> or = 1 mM). In this study, we show that taurine reduced the excitability of thalamocortical relay neurons and activated both extrasynaptic GABA(A)-Rs and Gly-Rs in neurons in the mouse ventrobasal (VB) thalamus. Low concentrations of taurine (10-100 microM) decreased neuronal input resistance and firing frequency, and elicited a steady outward current under voltage clamp, but had no effects on fast inhibitory synaptic currents. Currents elicited by 50 microM taurine were abolished by gabazine, insensitive to midazolam, and partially blocked by 20 microM Zn2+, consistent with the pharmacological properties of extrasynaptic GABA(A)-Rs (alpha4beta2delta subtype) involved in tonic inhibition in the thalamus. Tonic inhibition was enhanced by an inhibitor of taurine transport, suggesting that taurine can act as an endogenous activator of these receptors. Taurine-evoked currents were absent in relay neurons from GABA(A)-R alpha4 subunit knock-out mice. The amplitude of the taurine current was larger in neurons from adult mice than juvenile mice. Taurine was a more potent agonist at recombinant alpha4beta2delta GABA(A)-Rs than at alpha1beta2gamma2 GABA(A)-Rs. We conclude that physiological concentrations of taurine can inhibit VB neurons via activation of extrasynaptic GABA(A)-Rs and that taurine may function as an endogenous regulator of excitability and network activity in the thalamus.

Taurine acts as a glycine receptor agonist in slices of rat inferior colliculus

Taurine is an important endogenous amino acid for neural development and for many physiological functions, but little is known about its functional role in the central auditory system. We investigated in young rats (P10-P14) the effects of taurine on the neuronal responses and synaptic transmissions in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICC) with a brain slice preparation and with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Perfusion of taurine at 1mM reliably evoked a current across the membrane and decreased the input resistance in neurons of the ICC. Taurine also depressed the spontaneous and current-evoked firing of ICC neurons. All these effects were reversible after washout and could be blocked by 3 microM strychnine, an antagonist of glycine receptors, but not by 10 microM bicuculline, an antagonist of GABA(A) receptors. When the inhibitory receptors were not pharmacologically blocked, taurine reversibly reduced the postsynaptic currents/potentials evoked by electrically stimulating the commissure of the inferior colliculus or the ipsilateral lateral lemniscus. The results demonstrate that taurine reduces the neuronal excitability and depresses the synaptic transmission in the ICC by activating glycine-gated chloride channels. Our findings suggest that taurine acts as a ligand of glycine receptors in the ICC and can be involved in the information processing of the central auditory system similarly like the neurotransmitter glycine.

Cytoprotection by glycine against ATP-depletion-induced injury is mediated by glycine receptor in renal cells

It is known that glycine protects mammalian cells against ischaemic cell injury by preventing cellular membrane leakage. However, the molecular mechanisms have not yet been clearly elucidated. The purpose of the present study was to clarify whether GlyR (glycine receptor) acts as a key mediator in cytoprotection of glycine. cDNA encoding human GlyRa1 (a1-subunit of glycine receptor) was transfected into HEK-293 cells. The membrane integrity of the cells with or without GlyRa1 was examined by the uptake of marker compounds, the release of LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) and the exclusion of Trypan Blue. Glycine prevented the permeability of 70 kDa dextrans and 140 kDa LDH in the cells in which GlyR was expressed under conditions of ATP depletion. The inhibition of endogenous GlyR expression by RNA interference attenuated the cytoprotection by glycine. Furthermore, the mutation of Tyr202 to phenylalanine in GlyRa1 blocked the glycine-mediated cytoprotection, while the mutation of Tyr202 to leucine abolished the cytoprotection by strychnine. Our results suggested that the cytoprotection of glycine against ATP-depletion-induced injury might be mediated by GlyR.

Taurine supplementation and diabetes mellitus

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Taurine is a semi-essential sulphur amino acid derived from methionine and cysteine metabolism. It has been evaluated either in experimental or clinical type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. One form of experiment has included the possibility that perinatal taurine administration could prevent diabetes mellitus and/or insulin resistance.

RECENT FINDINGS

Experimental data suggest strongly that taurine could have beneficial effects in type 1 diabetes mellitus, and could generally reduce organ lipid peroxidation and plasma lipids. Interestingly, retina, lens and nerves seem to respond better to taurine than other organs such as kidneys. It has been shown in some experimental models that in type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance there is alteration in taurine homeostasis. Taurine could prevent the onset of diabetes mellitus in NOD mice and postnatal taurine modifies the glucose-loading curves in adults. However, the clinical studies are too small and too short to have any real significance.

SUMMARY

Further experimental and clinical studies are required to evaluate taurine's possible therapeutic potential. Careful attention has to be paid in the selection of animal species, in standardization of taurine concentrations and patient selection. Moreover, care must also be given to the metabolic state, presence of complications, duration of supplementations and selection of the right end-points.

Glycine-gated chloride channels depress synaptic transmission in rat hippocampus

An inhibitory role for strychnine-sensitive glycine-gated chloride channels (GlyRs) in mature hippocampus is beginning to be appreciated. We have reported previously that CA1 pyramidal cells and GABAergic interneurons recorded in 3- to 4-wk-old rat hippocampal slices express functional GlyRs, dispelling previous misconceptions that GlyR expression ceases in early development. However, the effect of GlyR activation on cell excitability and synaptic circuits in hippocampus has not been fully explored. Using whole cell current-clamp recordings, we show that activation of strychnine-sensitive GlyRs through exogenous glycine application causes a significant decrease in input resistance and prevents somatically generated action potentials in both CA1 pyramidal cells and interneurons. Furthermore, GlyR activation depresses the synaptic network by reducing suprathreshold excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) to subthreshold events in both cell types. Blockade of postsynaptic GlyRs with the chloride channel blocker 4, 4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2-2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) or altering the chloride ion driving force in recorded cells attenuates the synaptic depression, strongly indicating that a postsynaptic mechanism is responsible. Increasing the local glycine concentration by blocking reuptake causes a strychnine-sensitive synaptic depression in interneuron recordings, suggesting that alterations in extracellular glycine will impact excitability in hippocampal circuits. Finally, using immunohistochemical methods, we show that glycine and the glycine transporter GlyT2 are co-localized selectively in GABAergic interneurons, indicating that interneurons contain both inhibitory neurotransmitters. Thus we report a novel mechanism whereby activation of postsynaptic GlyRs can function to depress activity in the synaptic network in hippocampus. Moreover, the co-localization of glycine and GABA in hippocampal interneurons, similar to spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebellum, suggests that this property is likely to be a general characteristic of inhibitory interneurons throughout the CNS.