Identification of a small molecule inhibitor of serine 276 phosphorylation of the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB using in silico molecular docking

New mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-based strategies for osteoarthritis treatment: targeting macrophage-mediated inflammation to restore joint homeostasis

Macrophages are pivotal in osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis, as their dysregulated polarization can contribute to chronic inflammatory processes. This review explores the molecular and metabolic mechanisms that influence macrophage polarization and identifies potential strategies for OA treatment. Currently, non-surgical treatments for OA focus only on symptom management, and their efficacy is limited; thus, mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) have gained attention for their anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory capabilities. Emerging evidence suggests that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from MSCs can modulate macrophage function, thus offering potential therapeutic benefits in OA. Additionally, the transfer of mitochondria from MSCs to macrophages has shown promise in enhancing mitochondrial functionality and steering macrophages toward an anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotype. While further research is needed to confirm these findings, MSC-based strategies, including the use of sEVs and mitochondrial transfer, hold great promise for the treatment of OA and other chronic inflammatory diseases.

Resistance to African swine fever virus among African domestic pigs appears to be associated with a distinct polymorphic signature in the RelA gene and upregulation of RelA transcription

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly contagious and fatal hemorrhagic disease of domestic pigs, which poses a major threat to the swine industry worldwide. Studies have shown that indigenous African pigs tolerate ASFV infection better than European pigs. The porcine v-rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A (RelA) encoding a p65 kD protein, a major subunit of the NF-kB transcription factor, plays important roles in controlling both innate and adaptive immunity during infection with ASFV. In the present study, RelA genes from ASFV-surviving and symptomatic pigs were sequenced and found to contain polymorphisms revealing two discrete RelA amino acid sequences. One was found in the surviving pigs, and the other in symptomatic pigs. In total, 16 nonsynonymous SNPs (nsSNPs) resulting in codon changes were identified using bioinformatics software (SIFT and Polyphen v2) and web-based tools (MutPre and PredictSNP). Seven nsSNPs (P374-S, T448-S, P462-R, V464-P, Q478-H, L495-E, and P499-Q) were predicted to alter RelA protein function and stability, while 5 of these (P374-S, T448-S, P462-R, L495-E, and Q499-P) were predicted as disease-related SNPs.Additionally, the inflammatory cytokine levels of IFN-α, IL-10, and TNF-α at both the protein and the mRNA transcript levels were measured using ELISA and Real-Time PCR, respectively. The resulting data was used in correlation analysis to assess the association between cytokine levels and the RelA gene expression. Higher levels of IFN-α and detectable levels of IL-10 protein and RelA mRNA were observed in surviving pigs compared to healthy (non-infected). A positive correlation of IFN-α cytokine levels with RelA mRNA expression was also obtained. In conclusion, 7 polymorphic events in the coding region of the RelA gene may contribute to the tolerance of ASFV in pigs.

Sesamin inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and attenuates LPS-induced osteolysis via suppression of ERK and NF-κB signalling pathways

Infection by bacterial products in the implant and endotoxin introduced by wear particles activate immune cells, enhance pro-inflammatory cytokines production, and ultimately promote osteoclast recruitment and activity. These factors are known to play an important role in osteolysis as well as potential targets for the treatment of osteolysis. Sesamin has been shown to have a variety of biological functions, such as inhibiting inflammation, anti-tumour and involvement in the regulation of fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism. However, the therapeutic effect of sesamin on osteolysis and its mechanism remain unclear. Present studies shown that in the condition of in vitro, sesamin could inhibit osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption, as well as suppressing the expression of osteoclast-specific genes. Further studies on the mechanism suggest that the effect of sesamin on human osteoclasts was mediated by blocking the ERK and NF-κB signalling pathways. Besides, sesamin was found to be effective in treating LPS-induced osteolysis by decreasing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibiting osteoclastogenesis in vivo. Sesamin was non-toxic to heart, liver, kidney, lung and spleen. Therefore, sesamin is a promising phytochemical agent for the therapy of osteolysis-related diseases caused by inflammation and excessive osteoclast activation.

Plantamajoside suppresses the activation of NF-κB and MAPK and ameliorates the development of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative bone and joint disorder characterized by progressive cartilage degeneration and secondary synovial inflammation. It is a common chronic joint disorder that affects people of all ages (especially the old). Plantamajoside is a phenylpropanoside derived from plantain. It has a variety of biological properties, including antioxidant, anti-malignant cell proliferation, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the latent mechanism of plantamajoside was explored by slowing the in-vivo and in-vitro progression of osteoarthritis. The results revealed that plantamajoside pre-conditioning inhibited IL-1β induced pro-inflammatory factors like COX-2, iNOS, IL-6, and TNF-α. Moreover, plantamajoside also reversed the IL-1 β mediated type II collagen and aggrecan degradation within the extracellular matrix (ECM). The protective effects of plantamajoside have been attributed to the inhibition of both MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Furthermore, our in-vivo research found that plantamajoside could slow the progression of OA in mice. Finally, all findings point to plantamajoside as a potential anti-OA therapeutic candidate.

Polyphenols from the Peels of Punica granatum L. and Their Bioactivity of Suppressing Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Inflammatory Cytokines and Mediators in RAW 264.7 Cells via Activating p38 MAPK and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) is a popular fruit all over the world. Owning to its enriched polyphenols, P. granatum has been widely used in treating inflammation-related diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Twenty polyphenols, containing nine unreported ones, named punicagranins A–I (1–9), along with eleven known isolates (10–20), were obtained from the peels. Their detailed structures were elucidated based on UV, IR, NMR, MS, optical rotation, ECD analyses and chemical evidence. The potential anti-inflammatory activities of all polyphenols were examined on a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory macrophages model, which indicated that enhancing nitric oxide (NO) production in response to inflammation stimulated in RAW 264.7 cells was controlled by compounds 1, 3, 5–8, 10, 11, 14 and 16–20 in a concentration-dependent manner. The investigation of structure–activity relationships for tannins 6–8 and 12–20 suggested that HHDP, flavogallonyl and/or gallagyl were key groups for NO production inhibitory activity. Western blotting indicated that compounds 6–8 could down-regulate the phosphorylation levels of proteins p38 MAPK, IKKα/β, IκBα and NF-κB p65 as well as inhibit the levels of inflammation-related cytokines and mediators, such as IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2, at the concentration of 30 μM. In conclusion, polyphenols are proposed to be the potential anti-inflammatory active ingredients in P. granatum peels, and their molecular mechanism is likely related to the regulation of the p38 MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways.

Structural characterization of phenolic constituents from the rhizome of Imperata cylindrica var. major and their anti-inflammatory activity

As one of raw materials, the rhizome of Imperata cylindrica var. major (Nees) C.E. Hubb. is used in kinds of preparations curing inflammation related diseases, while its effective substances are not yet clear. In this paper, its chemical constituents and their anti-inflammatory activities were investigated. As results, ten compounds, named as imperphenoside A (1), imperphenols B (2) and C (3), imperphenosides D-F (4-6), and imperlignanosides A-D (7-10), along with previously reported thirty-seven known ones (11-47) were obtained from it. Their structures were ascertained basing on the extensive spectroscopic methods and electronic circular dichroism data analysis. Meanwhile, compounds 4, 11, 12, 24, 27, 31, 32, 37, 43, 45, and 47 exhibited nitric oxide inhibitory effects in concentration dependent at 3, 10, and 30 μM on lipopolysaccharides induced RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, the western blot analysis indicated that compounds 4, 11, 43, and 47 could restrain the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase to down-regulate the protein expression of inflammatory cytokines such as inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α. In conclusion, they might play the anti-inflammatory effects through regulating NF-κB signaling pathway.

Molecular dynamics simulation and docking analysis of NF-κB protein binding with sulindac acid

It is of interest to document the Molecular Dynamics Simulation and docking analysis of NF-κB target with sulindac sodium in combating COVID-19 for further consideration. Sulindac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the arylalkanoic acid class that is marketed by Merck under the brand name Clinoril. We show the binding features of sulindac sodium with NF-κB that can be useful in drug repurposing in COVID-19 therapy.

Small molecule natural compound targets the NF-κB signaling and ameliorates the development of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial and chronic disease describing the destruction of cartilage that can lead to defects in the elderly. There is currently no practical strategy that can reverse the OA process. Here, we describe nepetin, a small natural compound with extracellular matrix (ECM) and inflammation regulating functions. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of nepetin on interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-induced inflammation in mice chondrocyte and OA model. In chondrocytes, treatment with nepetin inhibited the overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators induced by IL-1β. Moreover, pretreatment or posttreatment with nepetin also reduced the ECM catabolism and enhanced the ECM anabolism. Mechanistically, nepetin suppressed NF-κB signaling pathway in IL-1β stimulated chondrocyte. Meanwhile, our molecular docking studies indicated nepetin had a powerful binding capacity to p65. Furthermore, nepetin showed a protective and therapeutic effect on the mouse OA model. To sum up, this study indicated nepetin had a new potential therapeutic option in OA.

α-Cyperone (CYP) down-regulates NF-κB and MAPKs signaling, attenuating inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation in chondrocytes, to ameliorate osteoarthritis in mice

Inflammation and extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation have been implicated in the pathological process of osteoarthritis (OA). α-Cyperone is the main active component of the traditional Chinese medicine Cyperus rotundus L. In this study, we found that α-Cyperone abolished the IL-1β-induced production of inflammatory cytokines in isolated rat chondrocytes, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), in a dose-dependent manner (0.75, 1.5 or 3 μM). Also, the results showed that α-Cyperone downregulated the expression of metalloproteinases (MMPs) and thrombospondin motifs 5 (ADAMTS5), and upregulated the expression of type-2 collagen. Mechanistically, molecular docking tests revealed that α-Cyperone stably and effectively binds to p65, p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). α-Cyperone inhibited NF-κB activation by blocking its nuclear transfer, and decreasing the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs). In addition, in vivo studies based on a mouse model of arthritis showed that α-Cyperone prevented the development of osteoarthritis. Therefore, α-Cyperone may be a potential anti-OA drug.

Structurally diverse triterpenes obtained from the fruits of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. as inflammation inhibitors by NF-κB signaling pathway

Twenty-nine triterpenes were obtained from the fruits of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. through various chromatography methods, and their stereo-structures were confirmed by spectroscopic methods. Among them, 2α,3β,20-trihydroxylupane-28-oic acid (1) was identified as a new compound, and the ¹H and ¹³C NMR data of 7, 8 and 23, as well as the ¹³C NMR data of 17 are reported here for the first time. Meanwhile, the nitric oxide (NO) inhibitory activities of all compounds were examined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. As results, compounds 2, 7, 10-13, 15, 16, 18-21, 26-29 were found to play important roles in suppressing NO production at 5 μM. The structure-activity relationships (SARs) on NO inhibition indicated that the ursolic and oleanolic acid skeletons, p-coumaroyl group substitution, six-membered A ring, and deoxygenation (loss of C[double bond, length as m-dash]O) in the C ring showed a more positive effect on the NO inhibitory activity of triterpenes, while the reduction of the A ring C[double bond, length as m-dash]O to OH was a negative factor. Moreover, it was found that compounds 15 and 19 could suppress the phosphorylation of IκBα and NF-κB/p65 to prevent it from shifting into the nucleus and downregulate the expression of inflammatory factors, such as iNOS, IL-6 and TNF-α. Our investigations revealed that the NO inhibitory effects of the active triterpenes obtained from Z. jujuba were mediated, at least in part, through the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Byakangelicin inhibits IL-1β-induced mouse chondrocyte inflammation in vitro and ameliorates murine osteoarthritis in vivo

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic musculoskeletal degeneration disease, resulting in severe consequences such as chronic pain and functional disability. Owing to the complex pathology, there are currently available preventative clinical therapies for OA. Several studies have reported the potential anti-inflammatory effects of byakangelicin (BYA), a component of the Angelica dahurica root extract; however, the effects of BYA in OA remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of BYA in interleukin (IL)-1β-induced mouse chondrocytes in vitro and on surgical destabilization in a medial meniscus (DMM) mouse OA model in vivo. In vitro, BYA treatment inhibited IL-1β-mediated inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and IL-6 expression. Moreover, BYA promoted the expression of type two collagen and aggrecan but inhibited the expression of thrombospondin motifs 5 and matrix metalloproteinases, leading to degradation of the extracellular matrix. In addition, BYA mechanistically suppressed nuclear factor-kappa B signaling in the IL-1β-induced chondrocytes. The protective effects of BYA in OA development were also observed in vivo using the DMM model. In conclusion, our results highlight BYA as a candidate for OA treatment and prevention.

α-Bisabolol suppresses the inflammatory response and ECM catabolism in advanced glycation end products-treated chondrocytes and attenuates murine osteoarthritis

As a chronic musculoskeletal degeneration disease, osteoarthritis (OA) clinically manifests as joint pain, stiffness and a limited range of movement. OA has affected the life quality of at least one-tenth of the population but lacks satisfactory treatments. α-Bisabolol (BISA) is a small oily sesquiterpene alcohol widely found in essential oils of chamomile (Matricaria recutita), salvia and wood of Candeia and has multiple biological properties, particularly an anti-inflammatory effect. The purpose of this study is to assess the anti-inflammatory and chondroprotective effect of BISA in OA progression and explore its underlying mechanism. We isolated human chondrocytes and treated them with advanced glycation end products (AGEs) to imitate OA progression in vitro. BISA pretreatment suppressed the AGE-induced inflammatory reaction and extracellular matrix (ECM) degeneration by blocking nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling. Moreover, a mouse destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) model was established by surgery to investigate BISA protection in vivo. BISA administration attenuated DMM-induced radiological and histopathological changes relative to the DMM group and resulted in lower OARSI scores. Taken together, the results of our study indicate the potential of BISA in OA therapy.

Troxerutin suppresses the inflammatory response in advanced glycation end-product-administered chondrocytes and attenuates mouse osteoarthritis development

As a chronic degenerative joint disease, osteoarthritis (OA) is clinically characterized by a high incidence, long-term pain, and limited joint activity but without effective preventative therapy.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) targets the NF-κB and MAPK pathways and ameliorates the development of osteoarthritis

The inflammatory environment has been demonstrated to be strongly associated with the progression of osteoarthritis (OA).

Secretory IgA Deficiency in Individual Small Airways Is Associated with Persistent Inflammation and Remodeling

RATIONALE

Maintenance of a surface immune barrier is important for homeostasis in organs with mucosal surfaces that interface with the external environment; however, the role of the mucosal immune system in chronic lung diseases is incompletely understood.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the relationship between secretory IgA (SIgA) on the mucosal surface of small airways and parameters of inflammation and airway wall remodeling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

METHODS

We studied 1,104 small airways (<2 mm in diameter) from 50 former smokers with COPD and 39 control subjects. Small airways were identified on serial tissue sections and examined for epithelial morphology, SIgA, bacterial DNA, nuclear factor-κB activation, neutrophil and macrophage infiltration, and airway wall thickness.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Morphometric evaluation of small airways revealed increased mean airway wall thickness and inflammatory cell counts in lungs from patients with COPD compared with control subjects, whereas SIgA level on the mucosal surface was decreased. However, when small airways were classified as SIgA intact or SIgA deficient, we found that pathologic changes were localized almost exclusively to SIgA-deficient airways, regardless of study group. SIgA-deficient airways were characterized by (1) abnormal epithelial morphology, (2) invasion of bacteria across the apical epithelial barrier, (3) nuclear factor-κB activation, (4) accumulation of macrophages and neutrophils, and (5) fibrotic remodeling of the airway wall.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the concept that localized, acquired SIgA deficiency in individual small airways of patients with COPD allows colonizing bacteria to cross the epithelial barrier and drive persistent inflammation and airway wall remodeling, even after smoking cessation.

Airway bacteria drive a progressive COPD-like phenotype in mice with polymeric immunoglobulin receptor deficiency

Mechanisms driving persistent airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are incompletely understood. As secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) deficiency in small airways has been reported in COPD patients, we hypothesized that immunobarrier dysfunction resulting from reduced SIgA contributes to chronic airway inflammation and disease progression. Here we show that polymeric immunoglobulin receptor-deficient (pIgR^−/−) mice, which lack SIgA, spontaneously develop COPD-like pathology as they age. Progressive airway wall remodelling and emphysema in pIgR^−/− mice are associated with an altered lung microbiome, bacterial invasion of the airway epithelium, NF-κB activation, leukocyte infiltration and increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-12 and neutrophil elastase. Re-derivation of pIgR^−/− mice in germ-free conditions or treatment with the anti-inflammatory phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor roflumilast prevents COPD-like lung inflammation and remodelling. These findings show that pIgR/SIgA deficiency in the airways leads to persistent activation of innate immune responses to resident lung microbiota, driving progressive small airway remodelling and emphysema.

The mechanisms driving lung inflammation and remodelling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are incompletely understood. Here the authors show that lack of secretory IgA promotes bacterial invasion in small airways, resulting in leukocyte recruitment and a COPD-like phenotype.

Binding mode analysis of zerumbone to key signal proteins in the tumor necrosis factor pathway

Breast cancer is the second most common cancer among women worldwide. Several signaling pathways have been implicated as causative and progression agents. The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α protein plays a dual role in promoting and inhibiting cancer depending largely on the pathway initiated by the binding of the protein to its receptor. Zerumbone, an active constituent of Zingiber zerumbet, Smith, is known to act on the tumor necrosis factor pathway upregulating tumour necrosis factor related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) death receptors and inducing apoptosis in cancer cells. Zerumbone is a sesquiterpene that is able to penetrate into the hydrophobic pockets of proteins to exert its inhibiting activity with several proteins. We found a good binding with the tumor necrosis factor, kinase κB (IKKβ) and the Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) component proteins along the TNF pathway. Our results suggest that zerumbone can exert its apoptotic activities by inhibiting the cytoplasmic proteins. It inhibits the IKKβ kinase that activates the NF-κB and also binds to the NF-κB complex in the TNF pathway. Blocking both proteins can lead to inhibition of cell proliferating proteins to be downregulated and possibly ultimate induction of apoptosis.

Identification and characterization of a novel class of c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibitors

In efforts to identify novel small molecules with anti-inflammatory properties, we discovered a unique series of tetracyclic indenoquinoxaline derivatives that inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nuclear factor-κB/activating protein 1 activation. Compound IQ-1 (11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one oxime) was found to be a potent, noncytotoxic inhibitor of pro-inflammatory cytokine [interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon-γ, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor] and nitric oxide production by human and murine monocyte/macrophages. Three additional potent inhibitors of cytokine production were identified through further screening of IQ-1 analogs. The sodium salt of IQ-1 inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α and IL-6 production in MonoMac-6 cells with IC(50) values of 0.25 and 0.61 μM, respectively. Screening of 131 protein kinases revealed that derivative IQ-3 [11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one-O-(2-furoyl)oxime]was a specific inhibitor of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) family, with preference for JNK3. This compound, as well as IQ-1 and three additional oxime indenoquinoxalines, were found to be high-affinity JNK inhibitors with nanomolar binding affinity and ability to inhibit c-Jun phosphorylation. Furthermore, docking studies showed that hydrogen bonding interactions of the active indenoquinoxalines with Asn152, Gln155, and Met149 of JNK3 played an important role in enzyme binding activity. Finally, we showed that the sodium salt of IQ-1 had favorable pharmacokinetics and inhibited the ovalbumin-induced CD4(+) T-cell immune response in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model in vivo. We conclude that compounds with an indenoquinoxaline nucleus can serve as specific small-molecule modulators for mechanistic studies of JNKs as well as a potential leads for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Cyclic AMP: a selective modulator of NF-κB action

It has been known for several decades that cyclic AMP (cAMP), a prototypical second messenger, transducing the action of a variety of G-protein-coupled receptor ligands, has potent immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory actions. These actions have been attributed in part to the ability of cAMP-induced signals to interfere with the function of the proinflammatory transcription factor Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB). NF-κB plays a crucial role in switching on the gene expression of a plethora of inflammatory and immune mediators, and as such is one of the master regulators of the immune response and a key target for anti-inflammatory drug design. A number of fundamental molecular mechanisms, contributing to the overall inhibitory actions of cAMP on NF-κB function, are well established. Paradoxically, recent reports indicate that cAMP, via its main effector, the protein kinase A (PKA), also promotes NF-κB activity. Indeed, cAMP actions appear to be highly cell type- and context-dependent. Importantly, several novel players in the cAMP/NF-κB connection, which selectively direct cAMP action, have been recently identified. These findings not only open up exciting new research avenues but also reveal novel opportunities for the design of more selective, NF-κB-targeting, anti-inflammatory drugs.

Species-specific variation in RELA underlies differences in NF-κB activity: a potential role in African swine fever pathogenesis

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious disease of domestic pigs, with virulent isolates causing a rapidly fatal hemorrhagic fever. In contrast, the porcine species endogenous to Africa tolerate infection. The ability of the virus to persist in one host while killing another genetically related host implies that disease severity may be, in part, modulated by host genetic variation. To complement transcription profiling approaches to identify the underlying genetic variation in the host response to ASFV, we have taken a candidate gene approach based on known signaling pathways that interact with the virus-encoded immunomodulatory protein A238L. We report the sequencing of these genes from different pig species and the identification and initial in vitro characterization of polymorphic variation in RELA (p65; v-rel reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A), the major component of the NF-κB transcription factor. Warthog RELA and domestic pig RELA differ at three amino acids. Transient cell transfection assays indicate that this variation is reflected in reduced NF-κB activity in vitro for warthog RELA but not for domestic pig RELA. Induction assays indicate that warthog RELA and domestic pig RELA are elevated essentially to the same extent. Finally, mutational studies indicate that the S531P site conveys the majority of the functional variation between warthog RELA and domestic pig RELA. We propose that the variation in RELA identified between the warthog and domestic pig has the potential to underlie the difference between tolerance and rapid death upon ASFV infection.