Characteristics and antifatigue activity of graded polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum separated by cascade membrane technology

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill neutral polysaccharides alleviate Parkinson's disease via effectively activating MCL-1 expression regulation of autophagy signaling

The purified neutral polysaccharide fraction, namely SBP-1, was isolated and characterized from Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill crude polysaccharides, which have anti-Parkinson's disease activity were investigated in vivo and in vitro. Experiments have shown that the main chain of SBP-1 was Glcp-(1→, →4)-Glcp-(1→ and →4,6)-Glcp-(1→. We also revealed the effect of SBP-1 on the PD mice model and the potential underlying molecular mechanism. The results showed that SBP-1 administration improved behavioral deficits, increased tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells, attenuated loss of dopaminergic neurons in MPTP-exposed mice, and reduced cell death induced by MPP+. The MCL-1 was identified as the target of SBP-1 by the combination of docking-SPR-ITC, WB, and IF experiments. Subsequently, the study showed that SBP-1 could target MCL-1 to enhance autophagy with a change in the apoptotic response, which was further demonstrated by a change in LC3/P62, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, and possesses a change in the expression of BCL2/BAX/Caspase3. These results demonstrate that SBP-1 may protect neurons against MPP+ or MPTP-induced damage in vitro and in vivo through enhancing autophagy. In summary, these findings indicate that SBP-1 and S. chinensis show potential as effective candidates for further investigation in the prevention and treatment of PD or associated illnesses, specifically through autophagy apoptotic-based mechanisms.

Positive effects of extracellular polysaccharides from Paecilomyces hepiali on immune-enhancing properties by regulating gut microbiota in cyclophosphamide-induced mice

Paecilomyces hepiali is a precious health-care edible medicinal fungus with rich polysaccharides and exhibits various biological activities. Polysaccharides from P. hepiali fermentation broth (PHP) exhibits good immunomodulatory activity; however, the mechanism underlying PHP-mediated regulation of immunity and gut microbiota remains unclear. To reveal the mechanisms, PHP of different doses were used to intervene cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressive model mice. The results revealed that PHP facilitated the secretion of serum cytokines, increased the mRNA and protein expression of TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, it improved the physical barrier function of the intestine by upregulating the expression of tight junction proteins. PHP increased the proliferation of beneficial bacteria, including, Actinobacteriota, Alistipes, Candidatus_Saccharimonas and unclassified_Clostridia_vadinBB60_group, and reduced the abundance of Proteobacteria, Deferribacterota, Mucispirillum and Escherichia_Shigella, promoted the production of short-chain fatty acids, which were positively associated with immune traits. Thus, as an immune enhancer, PHP has the potential to regulate the intestinal immune response in immunosuppressed mice through modulating gut microbiota.

Polysaccharide structure evaluation of Ganoderma lucidum from different regions in China based on an innovative extraction strategy

The polysaccharides and triterpenes are important functional components of Ganoderma lucidum, but traditional preparation process of G. lucidum functional components can only realize the preparation of single functional component, which has poor targeting and low efficiency. In this study, the existence state of the functional components of G. lucidum was revealed. Then, the single step extraction process for functional components was established, and the precise structure evaluation of polysaccharide and triterpenes was conducted based on the process. The results showed that preparation time required for this strategy is only one-sixth of the traditional one, and 50 % of raw materials can be saved. Structural analysis of the functional components revealed that triterpenes were mainly Ganoderic acid and Lucidenic acid, and the polysaccharide structure was mainly 1,3-glucan and 1,3,6-glucan. The establishment of single step extraction strategy and the evaluation of the fine structure of functional components improved the efficiency of preparation and result determination, and provided an important basis for the development and utilization of green and low-carbon G. lucidum and even edible fungi resources and human nutritional dietary improvement strategies.

In Vitro Digestion and Fermentation of Different Ethanol-Fractional Polysaccharides from Dendrobium officinale: Molecular Decomposition and Regulation on Gut Microbiota

Polysaccharides from Dendrobium officinale have garnered attention for their diverse and well-documented biological activities. In this study, we isolated three ethanol-fractionated polysaccharides from Dendrobium officinale (EPDO) and investigated their digestive properties and effects on gut microbiota regulation in vitro. The results indicated that after simulating digestion in saliva, gastric, and small intestinal fluids, three EPDOs, EPDO-40, EPDO-60 and EPDO-80, with molecular weights (Mw) of 442.6, 268.3 and 50.8 kDa, respectively, could reach the large intestine with a retention rate exceeding 95%. During in vitro fermentation, the EPDOs were broken down in a "melting" manner, resulting in a decrease in their Mw. EPDO-60 degraded more rapidly than EPDO-40, likely due to its moderate Mw. After 24 h, the total production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) for EPDO-60 reached 51.2 ± 1.9 mmol/L, which was higher than that of EPDO-80. Additionally, there was an increase in the relative abundance of Bacteroides, which are capable of metabolizing polysaccharides. EPDO-60 also promoted the growth of specific microbiota, including Prevotella 9 and Parabacteroides, which could potentially benefit from these polysaccharides. Most notably, by comparing the gut microbiota produced by different fermentation carbon sources, we identified the eight most differential gut microbiota specialized in polysaccharide metabolism at the genus level. Functional prediction of these eight differential genera suggested roles in controlling replication and repair, regulating metabolism, and managing genetic information transmission. This provides a new reference for elucidating the specific mechanisms by which EPDOs influence the human body. These findings offer new evidence to explain how EPDOs differ in their digestive properties and contribute to the establishment of a healthy gut microbiota environment in the human body.

Polysaccharides from Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl ameliorated fatigue by regulating NRF2/HO-1/NQO1 and AMPK/PGC-1α/TFAM signaling pathways, and gut microbiota

Polygonatum kingianum Coll & Hemsl is an important Chinese medicine used for enhancing physical function and anti-fatigue, and polysaccharides (PKPs) are considered as the main bioactive components. However, the mechanisms through which PKPs exert their anti-fatigue effects are not fully understood. This study aimed more comprehensively to explore the anti-fatigue mechanisms of PKPs, focusing on metabolism, protein expression, and gut flora, by using exhaustive swimming experiments in mice. Results showed a significant increase in the exhaustive swimming time of the mice treated with PKPs, especially in the high-dose group (200 mg/kg/day). Further studies showed that PKPs remarkably improves several fatigue-related physiological indices. Additionally, 16S rRNA sequence analysis showed that PKPs increased antioxidant bacteria (e.g., g_norank_f_Muribaculaceae) and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), while reducing the abundance of harmful bacteria (e.g., g_Escherichia-Shigella and g_Helicobacter). PKPs also mitigated oxidative stress through activating the NRF2/HO-1 signaling pathway, and promoted energy metabolism by upregulating the expression of AMPK/PGC-1α/TFAM signaling pathway proteins. This research may offer theoretical support for incorporating PKPs as a novel dietary supplement in functional foods targeting anti-fatigue properties.

Structure characteristics, protective effect and mechanisms of ethanol-fractional polysaccharides from Dendrobium officinale on acute ethanol-induced gastritis

Gastritis is a common disease characterized by gastric ulcers and severe bleeding. Excessive daily alcohol consumption can cause acute gastritis, impacting individuals' quality of life. This study aims to explore the protective effects of different ethanol-fractional polysaccharides of Dendrobium officinale (EPDO) on acute alcohol-induced gastric injury in vivo. Results showed that EPDO-80, identified as a β-glucan, exhibited significant anti-inflammatory properties in pathology. It could reduce the area of gastric mucosal injury and cell infiltration. EPDO-80 had a dose-effect relationship in reducing the levels of malondialdehyde and cyclooxygenase-2 and decreasing the levels of inflammation mediators such as tumor necrosis factor α. More extensively, EPDO-80 could inhibit the activation of the TNFR/IκB/NF-κB signaling pathway, reducing the production of TNF-α mRNA and cell apoptosis in organs. Conversely, EPDO-80 could promote changes in the gut microbiota structure. These findings suggest that EPDO-80 could have great potential in limiting oxidative stress and inflammation mediated by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway, which is highly related to its β-glucan structure and functions in gut microbiota.

Isolation, structure characterization and in vitro immune-enhancing activity of a glucan from the peels of stem lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

BACKGROUND

Stem lettuce is a medicinal and edible plant. The peels, accounting for 300-400 g kg-1 raw stem lettuce and containing polysaccharides 200 g kg-1 , are discarded as industrial waste, causing environment pollution and resource waste.

RESULTS

A polysaccharide named PPSL10-2 was obtained from the peels of stem lettuce after hot water extraction, and gradation with cascade ultrafiltration and purification using DEAE-Sepharose cellulose. The purity and molecular weight of PPSL10-2 is 96.10% and 2.2 × 104  Da respectively, as detected by high-performance gel permeation chromatography. PPSL10-2 was found to be an α-(1→4)-d-glucan that branched at O-6 with a terminal 1-linked α-d-Glcp as side chain, and devoid of helix conformation, which was characterized by monosaccharide composition analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Congo red test, scanning electron microscopy, methylation analysis and NMR spectroscopy. Furthermore, PPSL10-2 exhibited potent immune-enhancing effect by improving proliferation and phagocytosis, promoting the secretion of nitric oxide and cytokines, as well as the expression of related genes in RAW264.7 macrophages.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study suggest that peels as an agricultural by-product of stem lettuce are good sources of polysaccharides, which could be developed as immunopotentiator for improving human health. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Antifatigue effects and antioxidant activity in polysaccharide fractions from Chinese yam bulbils

Polysaccharides are the principal component in Chinese yam (Dioscorea opposita Thunb.) bulbils. The properties and antifatigue of polysaccharides from yam bulbils (PYB) were identified and compared. Their molecular weights (PYB-1 and PYB-2) were approximately 145 and 11 kDa, respectively, with active β-configurations. Meanwhile, the antifatigue activities of PYBs were tested in mice via exhaustive swimming tests (EST). The EST results indicated that PYB-1 and PYB-2 significantly prolonged swimming time in mice (p < .05). Associated with this increase was a rise in hepatic glycogen content and antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)) activity, along with a decline in blood urea nitrogen, lactic acid, and malondialdehyde levels. The results showed that molecular weight might contribute to the antifatigue effects of PYBs. Additionally, antioxidant tests showed that PYB-1 had stronger free-radical scavenging activity than PYB-2. Taken together, the findings indicated that PYBs exhibited effective antifatigue and antioxidant activities providing additional evidence supporting the use of PYBs as functional food ingredients for relieving fatigue.

Polysaccharides derived from natural edible and medicinal sources as agents targeting exercise-induced fatigue: A review

Exercise-induced fatigue (EF) is a common occurrence during prolonged endurance and excessive exercise and is mainly caused by energy depletion, harmful metabolite accumulation, oxidative stress, and inflammation. EF usually leads to a reduction in initiating or maintaining spontaneous activities and muscle performance and ultimately results in a decrease in the quality of life of people who engage in physical work. Therefore, the interest in investigating EF-targeting agents with minimal side effects and good long-term efficacy has substantially increased. Natural edible and medicinal polysaccharides have shown positive anti-EF effects, but the relevant reviews are rare. This review comprehensively summarizes studies on natural polysaccharides from edible and medicinal sources that can relieve EF and improve physical performance from the past decade, focusing on their sources, monosaccharide compositions, anti-EF effects, and possible molecular mechanisms. Most of these anti-EF polysaccharides are heteropolysaccharides and are mainly composed of glucose, arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, xylose, and mannose. In EF animal models, the polysaccharides exert positive EF-alleviating effects through energy supply, metabolic regulation, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and gut microbiota remodeling. However, further studies are still needed to clarify the anti-EF effects of these polysaccharides on human beings. In summary, the present review expects to provide scientific data for the future research and development of natural polysaccharide-based anti-EF drugs, dietary supplements, and health-care products for specific fatigue groups.

Antibacterial activity of a polysaccharide isolated from Artemisia argyi leaf against Staphylococcus aureus and mechanism investigation

Abuse of antibiotics has led to excessive amounts of antibiotic residues in food and environment, thus enhancing pathogenic bacterium resistance and threatening human health. Therefore, searching and developing safe and green antibiotic alternatives are necessary. In this study, an Artemisia argyi leaf polysaccharide (AALP) fraction was extracted and analyzed. Chemical composition analysis showed that the carbohydrate, uronic acid, protein, and polyphenol content in AALP were 68.3 % ± 4.13 %, 9.4 % ± 0.86 %, 1.79 % ± 0.27 %, and 0.16 % ± 0.035 %, respectively. Chromatographic results suggested that AALP contained rhamnose, arabinose, glucosamine, galactose, glucose, xylose, mannose, galacturonic acid, and glucuronic acid in a molar ratio of 9.26, 1.35, 1.18, 3.04, 48.51, 2.33, 31.26, 3.93, and 9.08; the weight average molecular weight, number average molecular weight, and polydispersity of AALP were 5.41 kDa, 4.63 kDa, and 1.168, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that AALP constituted the polysaccharide-specific groups of CH, CO, and OH. Meanwhile, AALP showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus aureus in the inhibition zone assay, and the minimal inhibitory concentration was 1.25 mg/mL. Furthermore, AALP disrupted the cell wall, depolarized the inner membrane potential, and inhibited the activities of succinate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase in S. aureus.

A Systematic Review on the Research Progress on Polysaccharides from Fungal Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a class of natural drugs with multiple components and significant therapeutic effects through multiple targets. It also originates from a wide range of sources containing plants, animals and minerals, and among them, plant-based Chinese medicine also includes fungi. Fungal traditional Chinese medicine is a medicinal resource with a long history and widespread application in China. Accumulating evidence confirms that polysaccharide is the main pharmacodynamic material on which fungal TCM is based. The purpose of the current systematic review is to summarize the extraction, isolation, structural identification, biological functions, quality control and medicinal and edible applications of polysaccharides from fungal TCM in the past three years. This paper will supplement and deepen the understanding and application of polysaccharides from fungal TCM, and propose some valuable insights for further research and development of drugs and functional foods.

Dietary Polysaccharides Exert Anti-Fatigue Functions via the Gut-Muscle Axis: Advances and Prospectives

Due to today's fast-paced lifestyle, most people are in a state of sub-health and face "unexplained fatigue", which can seriously affect their health, work efficiency, and quality of life. Fatigue is also a common symptom of several serious diseases such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, cancer, etc. However, the contributing mechanisms are not clear, and there are currently no official recommendations for the treatment of fatigue. Some dietary polysaccharides are often used as health care supplements; these have been reported to have specific anti-fatigue effects, with minor side effects and rich pharmacological activities. Dietary polysaccharides can be activated during food processing or during gastrointestinal transit, exerting unique effects. This review aims to comprehensively summarize and evaluate the latest advances in the biological processes of exercise-induced fatigue, to understand dietary polysaccharides and their possible molecular mechanisms in alleviating exercise-induced fatigue, and to systematically elaborate the roles of gut microbiota and the gut-muscle axis in this process. From the perspective of the gut-muscle axis, investigating the relationship between polysaccharides and fatigue will enhance our understanding of fatigue and may lead to a significant breakthrough regarding the molecular mechanism of fatigue. This paper will provide new perspectives for further research into the use of polysaccharides in food science and food nutrition, which could help develop potential anti-fatigue agents and open up novel therapies for sub-health conditions.

Study of anti-fatigue activity of polysaccharide from fruiting bodies of Armillaria gallica

Fatigue is a common physiological response that is closely related to energy metabolism. Polysaccharides, as excellent dietary supplements, have been proven to have a variety of pharmacological activities. In this study, A 23.007 kDa polysaccharide from Armillaria gallica (AGP) was purified and performed structural characterization, including analysis of homogeneity, molecular weight and monosaccharide composition. Methylation analysis is used to analyze the glycosidic bond composition of AGP. The mouse model of acute fatigue was used to evaluate the anti-fatigue effect of AGP. AGP-treatment improved exercise endurance in mice and reduced fatigue symptoms caused by acute exercise. AGP regulated the levels of adenosine triphosphate, lactic acid, blood urea nitrogen and lactate dehydrogenase, muscle glycogen and liver glycogen of acute fatigue mice. AGP affected the composition of intestinal microbiota, the changes of some intestinal microorganisms are correlated with fatigue and oxidative stress indicators. Meanwhile, AGP reduced oxidative stress levels, increased antioxidant enzyme activity and regulated the AMP-dependent protein kinase/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 signaling pathway. AGP exerted an anti-fatigue effect through modulation of oxidative stress, which is related to intestinal microbiota.

Isolation, Purification, and Structural Characterization of Polysaccharides from Codonopsis pilosula and Their Anti-Tumor Bioactivity by Immunomodulation

The activity of polysaccharides is usually related to molecular weight. The molecular weight of polysaccharides is critical to their immunological effect in cancer therapy. Herein, the Codonopsis polysaccharides of different molecular weights were isolated using ultrafiltration membranes of 60- and 100-wDa molecular weight cut-off to determine the relationship between molecular weight and antitumor activities. First, three water-soluble polysaccharides CPPS-I (<60 wDa), CPPS-II (60-100 wDa), and CPPS-III (>100 wDa) from Codonopsis were isolated and purified using a combination of macroporous adsorption resin chromatography and ultrafiltration. Their structural characteristics were determined through chemical derivatization, GPC, HPLC, FT-IR, and NMR techniques. In vitro experiments indicated that all Codonopsis polysaccharides exhibited significant antitumor activities, with the tumor inhibition rate in the following order: CPPS-II > CPPS-I > CPPS-III. The treatment of CPPS-II exhibited the highest inhibition rate at a high concentration among all groups, which was almost as efficient as that of the DOX·HCL (10 μg/mL) group at 125 μg/mL concentration. Notably, CPPS-II demonstrated the ability to enhance NO secretion and the antitumor ability of macrophages relative to the other two groups of polysaccharides. Finally, in vivo experiments revealed that CPPS-II increased the M1/M2 ratio in immune system regulation and that the tumor inhibition effect of CPPS-II + DOX was superior to that of DOX monotherapy, implying that CPPS-II + DOX played a synergistic role in regulating the immune system function and the direct tumor-killing ability of DOX. Therefore, CPPS-II is expected to be applied as an effective cancer treatment or adjuvant therapy.

Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua Polysaccharide Alleviates Fatigue by Modulating Osteocalcin-Mediated Crosstalk between Bones and Muscles

Osteocalcin was reported to regulate muscle energy metabolism, thus fighting fatigue during exercise. The current work aimed to investigate the anti-fatigue effect and the underlying mechanism of a homogeneous polysaccharide (PCPY-1) from Polgonatum cyrtonema after structure characterization. In the exhaustive swimming mouse model and the co-culture system of BMSCs/C2C12 cells, PCPY-1 significantly stimulated BMSC differentiation into osteoblasts as determined by ALP activity, matrix mineralization, and the protein expressions of osteogenic markers BMP-2, phosphor-Smad1, RUNX2, and osteocalcin. Meanwhile, PCPY-1 remarkably enhanced myoblast energy metabolism by upregulating osteocalcin release and GPRC6A protein expression; the phosphorylation levels of CREB and HSL; the mRNA levels of GLUT4, CD36, FATP1, and CPT1B; and ATP production in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, PCPY-1 exhibited good anti-fatigue capacity in mice as confirmed by fatigue-related indicators. Our findings indicated PCPY-1 could enhance osteocalcin-mediated communication between bones and muscles, which was conducive to muscle energy metabolism and ATP generation, thus alleviating fatigue in exhausted swimming mice.

Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of a polysaccharide produced by Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882

In the present work, a Gynostemma pentaphyllum herb endophytic fungus of Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882 polysaccharide produced from tapioca starch (GCP-TS) with submerged fermentation was analyzed. GCP-TS contains rhamnose, glucosamine, galactose, glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid in the molar ratio of 6.29: 0.55: 1.12: 22.93: 10.94: 3.54. Its weight-average molecular weight, number-average molecular weight and polydispersity were 4.73 × 10⁴ Da, 4.29 × 10⁴ Da and 1.103, respectively. Antioxidant results showed that GCP-TS had a concentration-dependent scavenging ability against DPPH radical, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, and ABTS radical. The corresponding scavenging capacities of GCP-TS aqueous solution at the concentration of 1.0 mg/mL were 45.11 ± 2.52, 43.58 ± 1.97, 36.27 ± 2.48, and 34.39 ± 2.06 %, respectively. Antibacterial activities of GCP-TS against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were enhanced with the increase in its concentration, and its bacteriostatic activity against S. aureus was stronger than that against E. coli.

Digestive properties and prebiotic activity of garlic saccharides with different-molecular-weight obtained by acidolysis

Garlic saccharides have prebiotic activity, but the association between their function and structure is still poorly known. In present study, four different garlic saccharides were obtained from garlic polysaccharides (GPs) after acidolysis by ultrafiltration. Obtained GPs were constituted by different monosaccharides, among which fructose and glucose were the main components, while galactose was a major component of GPs-U6. All four saccharides were partly degraded by the simulated digestive system, and most could reach the large intestine to be utilized by the gut microbiota. Except for GPs-U6, the other three garlic saccharide fractions had good prebiotic activity in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, GPs-U0.3 with lower molecular weight (Mw) showed better prebiotic activity, including promoting the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group and Phoscolarctobacterium, and inhibiting the growth of potentially harmful bacteria. In addition, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) Pathway enrichment analysis showed that GPs-U0.3 could reduce the risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Overall, this findings of the present study revealed the digestive properties of GPs, as well as the potential association between their chemical structures and fermentation characteristics by gut microbiota. Thus, it can be stated that GPs-U0.3 can be used as potential prebiotics in functional foods, which provides a theoretical basis for the targeted preparation of functionalized garlic saccharides.

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Four garlic saccharides of different Mw could pass through the digestive system and reach the large intestine safely.

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GPs-U2, GPs-U1 and GPs-U0.3 significantly modulate the composition and abundance of gut microbiota.

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GPs-U2, GPs-U1 and GPs-U0.3 significantly enhance the production of SCFAs.

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GPs-U0.3 exhibit better probiotic activity in vitro and in vivo.

Extraction, Characterization, and Platelet Inhibitory Effects of Two Polysaccharides from the Cs-4 Fungus

Cardiovascular diseases are associated with platelet hyperactivity, and downregulating platelet activation is one of the promising antithrombotic strategies. This study newly extracted two polysaccharides (purified exopolysaccharides, EPSp and purified intercellular exopolysaccharides, IPSp) from Cordyceps sinensis Cs-4 mycelial fermentation powder, and investigated the effects of the two polysaccharides and their gut bacterial metabolites on platelet functions and thrombus formation. EPSp and IPSp are majorly composed of galactose, mannose, glucose, and arabinose. Both EPSp and IPSp mainly contain 4-Galp and 4-Glcp glycosidic linkages. EPSp and IPSp significantly inhibited human platelet activation and aggregation with a dose-dependent manner, and attenuated thrombus formation in mice without increasing bleeding risk. Furthermore, the EPSp and IPSp after fecal fermentation showed enhanced platelet inhibitory effects. The results have demonstrated the potential value of Cs-4 polysaccharides as novel protective ingredients for cardiovascular diseases.

Physicochemical properties and immune-enhancing activity of graded polysaccharides from the peels of stem lettuce (Lactuca sativa) by cascade membrane technology

In this study, cascade membrane technology was applied to classify polysaccharides from the peels of stem lettuce (PPSLs), and three graded polysaccharides (PPSL100, PPSL10, and PPSL1) were obtained using ultrafiltration membranes of 100, 10, and 1 kDa in sequence. The physicochemical properties and immune-modulatory activity of three PPSLs fractions were analyzed and compared. Results showed that all three fractions have characteristic absorption peak of polysaccharides determined by FT-IR, and their monosaccharide composition only consisted of glucose determined by HPLC. PPSL10 had the highest contents of total sugar (88.09 ± 3.52%), uronic acid (2.55 ± 0.10%), and sulfate group (4.15 ± 0.20%). Besides, all three fractions exhibited immune-enhancing activities using RAW264.7 macrophages model, and PPSL10 was the best able to promote phagocytosis of neutral red and nitric oxide generation, which might relate to the high contents of above compositions and medium molecular weight (32 kDa). The findings indicated that PPSL10 could be developed as immune-modulator in the field of functional foods.

Ganoderma spp. polysaccharides are potential prebiotics: a review

The gut microbiota (GM) is a complex ecosystem that is closely linked to host health. Ganoderma spp. polysaccharides (GPs), a major bioactive component of the fungal genus Ganoderma, can modulate the GM, exhibiting various health effects and prebiotic potential. This review comprehensively concluded the structural features and extraction method of GPs. The mechanism of GPs for anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer were further evaluated. The simulated gastrointestinal digestion of GPs and the utilization mechanism of host microorganisms were discussed. It was found that the physicochemical properties and biological activities of GPs depend on their structural characteristics (molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic bonds, etc.). Their extraction method also affects the structure and bioactivities of polysaccharides. GPs supplementation could increase the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria (e.g. Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Akkermansia, and Bifidobacterium), while reducing that of pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Aerococcus, Ruminococcus), thus promoting health. Moreover, GPs are resistant to digestion in the stomach and small intestine but are digested in the large intestine. Therefore, GPs can be considered as potential prebiotics. However, further studies should investigate how GPs as prebiotics regulate GM and improve host health.

Extraction, isolation, structural characterization, and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from elderberry fruit

The isolation, purification, and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides extracted from elderberry fruits were studied. Two neutral polysaccharides (EFP-0 and EFP-1) and three acidic polysaccharides (EFP-2, EFP-3, and EFP-4) were isolated from elderberry. EFP-0, EFP-1, EFP-2, EFP-3, and EFP-4 all contain arabinose, galactose, glucose, and mannose, with molecular weights of 1.7981 × 10⁶, 7.0523 × 10⁶, 7.7638 × 10⁶, 4.3855 × 10⁵, and 7.3173 × 10⁵ Da, respectively. Structural characterization showed that the backbone of EFP-2 consisted of →4)-Manp (1→4)-β-D-Glcp (1→ and →4)-β-D-Glcp (1→5)-α-L-Araf (1→units, and T-α-L-Araf (1→ and T-β-D-Galp (1→ residues were detected by methylation analysis and NMR analysis. In addition, the MTT assay and zebrafish oxidative damage assay showed that EFP-2 had a protective effect on H₂O₂-damaged RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner, and zebrafish with the addition of EFP-2 would have low levels of ROS in vivo which showed significant antioxidant activity. Therefore, the results showed that the elderberry polysaccharides have antioxidant activity and can be used as potential antioxidants in functional foods.

Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of a Polysaccharide Produced From Sugarcane Molasses by Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882

As a by-product of the sugar industry containing many sugars, proteins, nitrogenous materials, and heavy metals, molasses is rarely used for polysaccharide production. In the present work, a Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882 polysaccharide was produced from sugarcane molasses (CGP-SM) was successfully produced from sugarcane molasses. The yield of CGP-SM was 5.83 ± 0.09 g/l and its protein content was 2.41 ± 0.12% (w/w). Structural analysis showed that CGP-SM was a crystalline and amorphous polysaccharide containing rhamnose, glucosamine, galactose, glucose, mannose, fructose, and glucuronic acid in the molar ratio of 10.31: 1.14: 2.07: 59.55: 42.65: 1.92: 9.63. Meanwhile, weight-average molecular weight (Mw), number-average molecular weight (Mn), and polydispersity (Mw/Mn) of CGP-SM were 28.37 KDa, 23.66 KDa, and 1.199, respectively. Furthermore, the bacteriostatic assay indicated that CGP-SM inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in a concentration-dependent manner, and its inhibitory effect on S. aureus was higher than that of E. coli. Above all, this work provides a green method for the production of bioactive polysaccharide from sugarcane molasses.

A Comparative Study on Relieving Exercise-Induced Fatigue by Inhalation of Different Citrus Essential Oils

Citrus essential oils (CEOs) possess physiological functions due to diverse aroma components. However, evidence for the effects of CEOs on exercise performance and exercise-induced fatigue is limited. The CEOs with discrepancies in components may exert different effects on the amelioration of exercise-induced fatigue. In this study, sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L.) essential oil (SEO), lemon (Citrus limon Osbeck) essential oil (LEO), and bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso and Poit) essential oil (BEO) were chosen to explore the effect on amelioration of exercise-induced fatigue. Our results demonstrated that SEO and LEO increased the swimming time by 276% and 46.5%, while BEO did not. Moreover, the three CEOs exerted varying effects on mitigating exercise-induced fatigue via inhibiting oxidative stress, protecting muscle injury, and promoting glucose-dependent energy supply. Accordingly, BEO showed the best efficiency. Moreover, the GC-MS and Pearson correlation analysis of BEO showed that the contents of the major components, such as (±)-limonene (32.9%), linalyl butyrate (17.8%), and linalool (7.7%), were significantly positively correlated with relieving exercise-induced fatigue.

Gastroprotective Effects of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights on Ethanol-Induced Acute Gastric Injury in Rats

Ganoderma lucidum is known as a medicine food homology that can ameliorate gastrointestinal diseases. To evaluate the gastroprotective effects on different Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs), GLP was separated into three parts with different molecular weights using 100 kDa, 10 kDa, and 1 kDa membranes. The mitigation effects of different GLPs on ethanol-induced acute gastric injury were observed in rats. After pretreatment with different GLPs, especially GLP above 10 kDa, the symptoms of gastric mucosal congestion and bleeding were improved; serum myeloperoxidase, inflammatory factor, and histamine were decreased; and antioxidant activity and defense factors (NO and EGF) were increased. Results showed that GLP with different molecular weights had a dose-dependent effect in alleviating alcohol-induced gastric injury. The underlying mechanism might be related to regulating anti-oxidation, promoting the release of related defense factors, reducing inflammatory factors, and reducing the level of histamine in serum. The current work indicated that GLPs above 10 kDa could be applied as natural resources for producing new functional foods to prevent gastric injury induced by ethanol.

Digestive Characteristics of Hericium erinaceus Polysaccharides and Their Positive Effects on Fecal Microbiota of Male and Female Volunteers During in vitro Fermentation

Hericium erinaceus polysaccharides (HEPs) have attracted widespread attention in regulating gut microbiota (GM). To investigate digestibility and fermentation of HEPs and their effects on GM composition, three polysaccharide fractions, namely, HEP-30, HEP-50, and HEP-70, were fractionally precipitated with 30%, 50%, and 70% ethanol concentrations (v/v) from hot water-soluble extracts of Hericium erinaceus, respectively. Three kinds of prepared HEPs were structurally characterized and simulated gastrointestinal digestion, and their effects on human fecal microbiota fermentations of male and female and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production in vitro were clarified. Under digestive conditions simulating saliva, stomach, and small intestine, HEPs were not significantly influenced and safely reached the distal intestine. After 24 h of in vitro fermentation, the content of SCFAs was significantly enhanced (p < 0.05), and the retention rates of total and reducing sugars and pH value were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Thus, HEPs could be utilized by GM, especially HEP-50, and enhanced the relative abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria, e.g., Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Blautia, Butyricicoccus, and Lactobacillus. Furthermore, HEPs reduced the relative abundances of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Escherichia-Shigella, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter. This study suggests that gradual ethanol precipitation is available for the preparation of polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus, and the extracted polysaccharide could be developed as functional foods with great development value.