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Norfarhana A, Ilyas R, Ngadi N, Dzarfan Othman MH. Innovative ionic liquid pretreatment followed by wet disk milling treatment provides enhanced properties of sugar palm nano-fibrillated cellulose. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27715. [PMID: 38509963 PMCID: PMC10951586 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
In order to accommodate the increased demand for innovative materials, intensive research has focused on natural resources. In pursuit of advanced substances that exhibit functionality, sustainability, recyclability, and cost-effectiveness, the present work attempted an alternative study on cellulose nanofibers derived from sugar palm fiber. Leveraging an innovative approach involving ionic liquid (IL) pre-treatment, bleaching, and wet disc mill technique, nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC) was successfully obtained from the sugar palm fiber source. Remarkably, 96.89% of nanofibers were extracted from the sugar palm fiber, demonstrating the process's efficacy and scalability. Further investigation revealed that the sugar palm nano-fibrillated cellulose (SPNFC) exhibited a surface area of 3.46 m2/g, indicating a significant interface for enhanced functionality. Additionally, the analysis unveiled an average pore size of 4.47 nm, affirming its suitability for various applications that necessitate precise filtration. Moreover, the surface charge densities of SPNFC were found to be -32.1 mV, offering opportunities for surface modification and enhanced interactions with various materials. The SPNFC exhibit remarkable thermal stability, enduring temperatures of up to 360.5 °C. Additionally, the isolation process is evident in a significant rise in the crystallinity index, escalating from 50.97% in raw fibers to 61.62% in SPNFC. These findings shed light on the vast potential and distinct features of SPNFC, opening the path for its application in a wide array of industries, including but not limited to advanced materials, biomedicine, and environmental engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.S. Norfarhana
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
- Department of Petrochemical Engineering, Politeknik Tun Syed Nasir Syed Ismail, Pagoh Education Hub, 84600 Pagoh Muar Johor, Malaysia
| | - R.A. Ilyas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
- Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Centre of Excellence for Biomass Utilization, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 02600, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
| | - Norzita Ngadi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Hafiz Dzarfan Othman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
- Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
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Jing S, Wu L, Siciliano AP, Chen C, Li T, Hu L. The Critical Roles of Water in the Processing, Structure, and Properties of Nanocellulose. ACS NANO 2023; 17:22196-22226. [PMID: 37934794 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c06773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
The cellulose industry depends heavily on water owing to the hydrophilic nature of cellulose fibrils and its potential for sustainable and innovative production methods. The emergence of nanocellulose, with its excellent properties, and the incorporation of nanomaterials have garnered significant attention. At the nanoscale level, nanocellulose offers a higher exposure of hydroxyl groups, making it more intimate with water than micro- and macroscale cellulose fibers. Gaining a deeper understanding of the interaction between nanocellulose and water holds the potential to reduce production costs and provide valuable insights into designing functional nanocellulose-based materials. In this review, water molecules interacting with nanocellulose are classified into free water (FW) and bound water (BW), based on their interaction forces with surface hydroxyls and their mobility in different states. In addition, the water-holding capacity of cellulosic materials and various water detection methods are also discussed. The review also examines water-utilization and water-removal methods in the fabrication, dispersion, and transport of nanocellulose, aiming to elucidate the challenges and tradeoffs in these processes while minimizing energy and time costs. Furthermore, the influence of water on nanocellulose properties, including mechanical properties, ion conductivity, and biodegradability, are discussed. Finally, we provide our perspective on the challenges and opportunities in developing nanocellulose and its interplay with water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangshuang Jing
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Lianping Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Amanda P Siciliano
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Chaoji Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Teng Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Liangbing Hu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Center for Materials Innovation, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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Bolat F, Ghitman J, Necolau MI, Vasile E, Iovu H. A Comparative Study of the Impact of the Bleaching Method on the Production and Characterization of Cotton-Origin Nanocrystalline Cellulose by Acid and Enzymatic Hydrolysis. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3446. [PMID: 37631504 PMCID: PMC10458172 DOI: 10.3390/polym15163446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to environmental concerns, as well as its exceptional physical and mechanical capabilities, biodegradability, and optical and barrier qualities, nanocellulose has drawn a lot of interest as a source of reinforcing materials that are nanometer sized. This article focuses on how to manufacture cellulose nanomaterials from cotton by using different types of acids such as H2SO4 and HCI in different concentrations and in the presence of enzymes such as cellulase and xylanase. Two different types of bleaching methods were used before acid and enzyme hydrolysis. In the first method, cellulose was extracted by bleaching the cotton with H2O2. In the second method, NaOCl was utilized. For both methods, different concentrations of acids and enzymes were used to isolate nanocellulose materials, cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), and cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) at different temperatures. All obtained nanocellulose materials were analyzed through different techniques such as FT-IR, Zeta potentials, DLS, Raman spectroscopy, TGA, DSC, XRD, and SEM. The characteristic signals related to cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) were confirmed with the aid of Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy. According to the XRD results, the samples' crystallinity percentages range from 54.1% to 63.2%. The SEM image showed that long fibers break down into small fibers and needle-like features are seen on the surface of the fibers. Using different types of bleaching has no significant effect on the thermal stability of samples. The results demonstrate a successful method for synthesizing cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) from cotton through enzymatic hydrolysis, but the results also demonstrated that the choice of bleaching method has a significant impact on the hydrodynamic properties and crystallinity of both CNC and CNF samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faik Bolat
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 1–7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania; (F.B.); (J.G.); (M.I.N.)
| | - Jana Ghitman
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 1–7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania; (F.B.); (J.G.); (M.I.N.)
| | - Madalina Ioana Necolau
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 1–7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania; (F.B.); (J.G.); (M.I.N.)
| | - Eugeniu Vasile
- Department of Oxide Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 1–7 Gh. Polizu, 060042 Bucharest, Romania;
| | - Horia Iovu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 1–7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania; (F.B.); (J.G.); (M.I.N.)
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, 54 Splaiul Independentei, 050094 Bucharest, Romania
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Tasnim S, Tipu MFK, Rana MS, Rahim MA, Haque M, Amran MS, Chowdhury AA, Chowdhury JA. Modification of Bulk Density, Flow Property and Crystallinity of Microcrystalline Cellulose Prepared from Waste Cotton. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:5664. [PMID: 37629955 PMCID: PMC10456891 DOI: 10.3390/ma16165664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
The most affordable type of tablet is the immediately compressible tablet, which uses microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), a popular pharmaceutical excipient, as a filler or binder. To make it compatible with different active drugs and excipients, we tried to change some physical properties of the MCC. In the current study, we used a chelating agent to pretreat the waste cotton before pulping, bleaching, and finally, hydrochloric acid degradation with a concentration of 2N at 100 °C temperature for 20 min to prepare MCC. The prepared MCC was treated with different concentrations of sodium hydroxide at room temperature or at -20 °C followed by precipitation with hydrochloric acid or ethanol with complete washing with distilled water till neutralization. Evaluation of the degree of polymerization (DP) and FT-IR spectrum confirm the identity of the microcrystalline cellulose. The DP was found to be 216. The bulk density of the unmodified MCC was 0.21 while that of modified MCC varied from 0.253 to 0.594. The modified MCC powder showed good flow properties compared to the unmodified MCC as evaluated by the Hausner index, Carr's index and the angle of repose. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the MCC revealed that the rod shape has been changed to an oval shape due to treatment with sodium hydroxide at -20 °C. The X-ray crystallographic (XRD) analysis indicated that the unmodified MCC and standard MCC showed the crystallinity index (CrI) value of 86.82% and 87.63%, respectively, while the value ranges from 80.18% to 60.7% among the modified MCC powder. The differences in properties of the MCC might be due to the variation of rearrangement of the cellulose chain among the MCC particles due to treatment with different concentrations of a base at different temperatures and precipitation environments. This has enabled us to prepare MCC with different properties which might be compatible with different drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabiha Tasnim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Fazlul Karim Tipu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Sohel Rana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Abdur Rahim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Mithila Haque
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Shah Amran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Abu Asad Chowdhury
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Jakir Ahmed Chowdhury
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
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Aigaje E, Riofrio A, Baykara H. Processing, Properties, Modifications, and Environmental Impact of Nanocellulose/Biopolymer Composites: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15051219. [PMID: 36904460 PMCID: PMC10006885 DOI: 10.3390/polym15051219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing concerns about plastic pollution and climate change have encouraged research into bioderived and biodegradable materials. Much attention has been focused on nanocellulose due to its abundance, biodegradability, and excellent mechanical properties. Nanocellulose-based biocomposites are a viable option to fabricate functional and sustainable materials for important engineering applications. This review addresses the most recent advances in composites, with a particular focus on biopolymer matrices such as starch, chitosan, polylactic acid, and polyvinyl alcohol. Additionally, the effects of the processing methods, the influence of additives, and the outturn of nanocellulose surface modification on the biocomposite's properties are outlined in detail. Moreover, the change in the composites' morphological, mechanical, and other physiochemical properties due to reinforcement loading is reviewed. Further, mechanical strength, thermal resistance, and the oxygen-water vapor barrier properties are enhanced with the incorporation of nanocellulose into biopolymer matrices. Furthermore, the life cycle assessment of nanocellulose and composites were considered to analyze their environmental profile. The sustainability of this alternative material is compared through different preparation routes and options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Aigaje
- Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Ciencias de la Producción, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, Guayaquil 090506, Ecuador
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (H.B.)
| | - Ariel Riofrio
- Center of Nanotechnology Research and Development (CIDNA), Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, Guayaquil 090506, Ecuador
| | - Haci Baykara
- Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Ciencias de la Producción, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, Guayaquil 090506, Ecuador
- Center of Nanotechnology Research and Development (CIDNA), Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, Guayaquil 090506, Ecuador
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (H.B.)
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Ling Z, Wang J, Zhao J, Feng L, Ma J, Liu X. Insights into key factors affecting bioconversion efficiency of rattan biomass: The supramolecular structural variations of cellulose. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2023; 369:128381. [PMID: 36423755 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.128381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Global energy concerns urged us to search for sufficient utilization of biomass to renewable energy. Herein, rattan biomass displaying herbaceous species-like anatomy and hardwood-like chemical composition was used as model of lignocellulose to determine its recalcitrance inhibiting efficient bioconversion. Delignification and continuous mild alkaline treatments were applied for deconstruction of rattan cane (Calamus simplicifolius) followed by cellulase enzymatic hydrolysis. Cellulose supramolecular structural variations were proved to be the major reason for the enhanced hydrolysis in addition to the removal of lignin and hemicelluloses matrix. Lowered crystallinity (50-65 %) as well as swelled crystallite sizes (4.8-5.0 nm) during allomorphic transformation favored the enhanced hydrolysis, rather than the crystalline cellulose II. Moreover, well-distributed separation and fibrillation of cellulose elementary fibrils also contributed to glucose yield promotion. The study will provide new insights to the strategy to efficient bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Ling
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Jiajun Wang
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China
| | - Jinyi Zhao
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Long Feng
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China
| | - Jianfeng Ma
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China.
| | - Xinge Liu
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China
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Si R, Pu J, Luo H, Wu C, Duan G. Nanocellulose-Based Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Ion. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14245479. [PMID: 36559846 PMCID: PMC9783304 DOI: 10.3390/polym14245479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Heavy metal ions in industrial sewage constitute a serious threat to human health. Nanocellulose-based adsorbents are emerging as an environmentally friendly material platform for heavy metal ion removal based on their unique properties, which include high specific surface area, excellent mechanical properties, and biocompatibility. In this review, we cover the most recent works on nanocellulose-based adsorbents for heavy metal ion removal and present an in-depth discussion of the modification technologies for nanocellulose in the process of assembling high-performance heavy ion adsorbents. By introducing functional groups, such as amino, carboxyl, aldehyde, and thiol, the assembled nanocellulose-based adsorbents both remove single heavy metal ions and can selectively adsorb multiple heavy ions in water. Finally, the remaining challenges of nanocellulose-based adsorbents are pointed out. We anticipate that this review will provide indispensable guidance on the application of nanocellulose-based adsorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong Si
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
| | - Junwen Pu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (J.P.); (C.W.); (G.D.); Tel.: +86-136-8124-3864 (J.P.); +86-150-6903-1483 (C.W.)
| | - Honggang Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
| | - Chaojun Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
- Correspondence: (J.P.); (C.W.); (G.D.); Tel.: +86-136-8124-3864 (J.P.); +86-150-6903-1483 (C.W.)
| | - Gaigai Duan
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Correspondence: (J.P.); (C.W.); (G.D.); Tel.: +86-136-8124-3864 (J.P.); +86-150-6903-1483 (C.W.)
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Han X, Wang J, Wang X, Tian W, Dong Y, Jiang S. Finite Element Analysis of Strengthening Mechanism of Ultrastrong and Tough Cellulosic Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:4490. [PMID: 36365485 PMCID: PMC9654337 DOI: 10.3390/polym14214490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Superior strong and tough structural materials are highly desirable in engineering applications. However, it remains a big challenge to combine these two mutually exclusive mechanical properties into one body. In the work, an ultrastrong and tough cellulosic material was fabricated by a two-step process of delignification and water molecule-induced hydrogen bonding under compression. The strong and tough cellulosic material showed enhanced tensile strength (352 MPa vs. 56 MPa for natural wood) and toughness (4.1 MJ m-3 vs. 0.42 MJ m-3 for natural wood). The mechanical behaviors of ultrastrong and tough bulk material in a tensile state were simulated by finite element analysis (FEA) using mechanical parameters measured in the experiment. FEA results showed that the tensile strength and toughness gradually simultaneously improved with the increase in moisture content, demonstrating that water molecules played an active role in fabricating strong and tough materials, by plasticizing and forming hydrogen bonding among cellulose nanofibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoshuai Han
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Jingwen Wang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Xiaoyi Wang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Wei Tian
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Yanyan Dong
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Shaohua Jiang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
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Fibre–Wood Laminate Biocomposites: Seawater Immersion Effects on Flexural and Low Energy Impact Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14194038. [PMID: 36235986 PMCID: PMC9573211 DOI: 10.3390/polym14194038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present paper explores a new concept of a hybrid eco-composite by substituting the natural fibre plies with thin wood veneers. The new composite, named Fibre–Wood Laminate (FWL), is inspired by fibre–metal laminate materials. The studied FWL configuration consisted of a single thin pinewood veneer at each of the outer layers of a flax woven fabric reinforced bio-epoxy composite manufactured by infusion. Three-point bending results showed that wood veneer gives a highly anisotropic nature to the FWL. In the best case, with the grain of the wood at 0°, the stiffness and the strength increased by 28 and 41%, respectively, but reduced the strain-at-break by 27% compared to the flax fibre reinforced bio-epoxy (FFRB). The penetration and perforation energy thresholds and the peak force of the FWL obtained by falling weight impact tests were 32, 29, and 31% lower than those of the FFRB, respectively. This weakening was due to using single wood veneers, so the challenge for improving impact properties will be to explore thicker FWLs with different stacking sequences and orientations. The effect of immersing the FWL in seawater also showed considerable differences. The epoxy matrix filled the cellular structure of the wood veneers, creating a barrier effect and reducing the amount of water absorbed by the flax fibres.
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