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Qin H, Xu H, Capron A, Porth I, Cui M, Keena MA, Deng X, Shi J, Hamelin RC. Is there hybridization between 2 species of the same genus in sympatry?-The genetic relationships between Anoplophora glabripennis, Anoplophora chinensis, and putative hybrids. INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 31:633-645. [PMID: 37578006 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Anoplophora glabripennis (Asian longhorn beetle, ALB) and Anoplophora chinensis (Citrus longhorn beetle, CLB) are native forest pests in China; they have become important international quarantine pests. They are found using the same Salix aureo-pendula host tree of Cixi, Zhejiang province, China. On this host tree, we collected additional beetles that appeared to be morphologically intermediate between ALB and CLB. By using a stereoscope, we observed that there were several bumps on the base of the elytra, which was inconsistent with ALB, which typically has a smooth elytral base, but was more like CLB, which has numerous short tubercles on the elytral base. Given their sympatry and intermediate morphology, we hypothesized that these may represent ALB × CLB hybrids. We studied the genomic profiles for 46 samples (ALB, CLB, and putative hybrids) using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) providing a reduced representation of the entire genome. Employing principal component analyses on the 163 GBS-derived single nucleotide polymorphism data, we found putative hybrids tightly clustered with ALB, but genetically distinct from the CLB individuals. Therefore, our initial hybrid hypothesis was not supported by genomic data. Further, while mating experiments between adult ALB and CLB were successful in 4 separate years (2017, 2018, 2020, and 2021), and oviposition behavior was observed, no progeny was produced. Having employed population genomic analysis and biological hybridization experiments, we conclude that the putative hybrids represent newly discovered morphological variants within ALB. Our approach further confirmed the advantage of genome-wide information for Anoplophora species assignment in certain ambiguous classification cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiwen Qin
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Department of Forest, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Huachao Xu
- College of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Arnaud Capron
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Ilga Porth
- Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Laval University, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mingming Cui
- Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Laval University, Quebec, Canada
| | - Melody A Keena
- Department of Agriculture, Northern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Hamden, Connecticut, USA
| | - Xiaofang Deng
- Changchun Landscape Plant Conservation Station, Bureau of Forestry and Landscaping of Changchun, Changchun, China
| | - Juan Shi
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Department of Forest, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Richard C Hamelin
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Cui M, Wu Y, Javal M, Giguère I, Roux G, Andres JA, Keena M, Shi J, Wang B, Braswell E, Pfister SE, Hamelin R, Roe A, Porth I. Genome-scale phylogeography resolves the native population structure of the Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky). Evol Appl 2022; 15:934-953. [PMID: 35782014 PMCID: PMC9234632 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human-assisted movement has allowed the Asian longhorned beetle (ALB, Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky)) to spread beyond its native range and become a globally regulated invasive pest. Within its native range of China and the Korean peninsula, human-mediated dispersal has also caused cryptic translocation of insects, resulting in population structure complexity. Previous studies used genetic methods to detangle this complexity but were unable to clearly delimit native populations which is needed to develop downstream biosurveillance tools. We used genome-wide markers to define historical population structure in native ALB populations and contemporary movement between regions. We used genotyping-by-sequencing to generate 6102 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and amplicon sequencing to genotype 53 microsatellites. In total, we genotyped 712 individuals from ALB's native distribution. We observed six distinct population clusters among native ALB populations, with a clear delineation between northern and southern groups. Most of the individuals from South Korea were distinct from populations in China. Our results also indicate historical divergence among populations and suggest limited large-scale admixture, but we did identify a restricted number of cases of contemporary movement between regions. We identified SNPs under selection and describe a clinal allele frequency pattern in a missense variant associated with glycerol kinase, an important enzyme in the utilization of an insect cryoprotectant. We further demonstrate that small numbers of SNPs can assign individuals to geographic regions with high probability, paving the way for novel ALB biosurveillance tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Cui
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des SystèmesUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
- Département des sciences du bois et de la forêtUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
| | - Yunke Wu
- Forest Pest Methods LaboratoryPlant Protection and Quarantine Science and TechnologyAnimal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceUnited States Department of AgricultureBuzzards BayMassachusettsUSA
| | - Marion Javal
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et ÉvolutiveUniversité MontpellierMontpellierFrance
| | - Isabelle Giguère
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des SystèmesUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
- Département des sciences du bois et de la forêtUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
| | - Géraldine Roux
- Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueUR633 Zoologie ForestièreOrléansFrance
- COSTUniversité d’OrléansOrléansFrance
| | - Jose A. Andres
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Melody Keena
- United States Department of AgricultureForest ServiceNorthern Research StationHamdenConnecticutUSA
| | - Juan Shi
- Key Laboratory for Silviculture and Conservation of Ministry of EducationBeijing Forestry UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Baode Wang
- Forest Pest Methods LaboratoryPlant Protection and Quarantine Science and TechnologyAnimal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceUnited States Department of AgricultureBuzzards BayMassachusettsUSA
| | - Evan Braswell
- Insect Management and Molecular Diagnostics LaboratoryPlant Protection and Quarantine Science and Technology, Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceUnited States Department of AgricultureEdinburgTexasUSA
| | - Scott E. Pfister
- Forest Pest Methods LaboratoryPlant Protection and Quarantine Science and TechnologyAnimal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceUnited States Department of AgricultureBuzzards BayMassachusettsUSA
| | - Richard Hamelin
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des SystèmesUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
- Département des sciences du bois et de la forêtUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
- Department of Forest and Conservation SciencesThe University of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Amanda Roe
- Canadian Forest ServiceGreat Lakes Forestry CentreNatural Resources CanadaSault Ste. MarieOntarioCanada
| | - Ilga Porth
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des SystèmesUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
- Département des sciences du bois et de la forêtUniversité LavalQuébecQuébecCanada
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Zhao CL, Zhao T, Feng JY, Chang LM, Zheng PY, Fu SJ, Li XM, Yue BS, Jiang JP, Zhu W. Temperature and Diet Acclimation Modify the Acute Thermal Performance of the Largest Extant Amphibian. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12040531. [PMID: 35203239 PMCID: PMC8868240 DOI: 10.3390/ani12040531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), one of the largest extant amphibian species, has dramatically declined in the wild. As an ectotherm, it may be further threatened by climate change. Therefore, understanding the thermal physiology of this species should be the priority to formulate related conservation strategies. In this study, the plasticity in metabolic rate and thermal tolerance limits of A. davidianus larvae were studied. Specifically, the larvae were acclimated to three temperature levels (7 °C, cold stress; 15 °C, optimum; and 25 °C, heat stress) and two diet items (red worm or fish fray) for 20 days. Our results indicated that cold-acclimated larvae showed increased metabolic capacity, while warm-acclimated larvae showed a decrease in metabolic capacity. These results suggested the existence of thermal compensation. Moreover, the thermal tolerance windows of cold-acclimated and warm-acclimated larvae shifted to cooler and hotter ranges, respectively. Metabolic capacity is not affected by diet but fish-fed larvae showed superiority in both cold and heat tolerance, potentially due to the input of greater nutrient loads. Overall, our results suggested a plastic thermal tolerance of A. davidianus in response to temperature and diet variations. These results are meaningful in guiding the conservation of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Lin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Bioresources and Ecoenvironment (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China;
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Tian Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Jian-Yi Feng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Li-Ming Chang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Pu-Yang Zheng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Shi-Jian Fu
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 400047, China; (S.-J.F.); (X.-M.L.)
| | - Xiu-Ming Li
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 400047, China; (S.-J.F.); (X.-M.L.)
| | - Bi-Song Yue
- Key Laboratory of Bioresources and Ecoenvironment (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China;
- Correspondence: (B.-S.Y.); (W.Z.); Tel.: +86-028-82890935 (B.-S.Y.)
| | - Jian-Ping Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
| | - Wei Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu 610041, China; (T.Z.); (J.-Y.F.); (L.-M.C.); (P.-Y.Z.); (J.-P.J.)
- Correspondence: (B.-S.Y.); (W.Z.); Tel.: +86-028-82890935 (B.-S.Y.)
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Keena MA, Richards JY. Effects of Temperature on Anoplophora chinensis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Larvae and Pupae. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 51:153-166. [PMID: 34791127 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvab132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) is a xylophagous invasive cerambycid whose larvae feed on the lower bole and exposed roots of many tree species in orchard, urban, and forested habitats. Larval survival and development of A. chinensis from Italy and China were evaluated at eight constant temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40°C). Development was slow or did not occur at temperatures ≤10 and >35°C. The TMin for the first six instars and the pupa was <10°C, while TMin for the higher instars was closer to 12°C. The ultimate instar for both populations was insensitive to temperature. When the TMax thresholds could be estimated they were between 31 and 41°C. Temperature also influenced larval weight gain; larvae held at 25-30°C generally weighed the most from the fourth instar on. The number of degree days for 50% of the population to molt to the next instar increased with increasing instar for both populations up through the sixth instar. Anoplophora chinensis may use wood moisture content in conjunction with temperature as a cue as to when to pupate. These responses of A. chinensis to temperature can be used for developing phenological models to predict timing of stages for management or eradication efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody A Keena
- Northern Research Station, Northeastern Center for Forest Health Research, USDA Forest Service, Hamden, CT, United States
| | - Jessica Y Richards
- Northern Research Station, Northeastern Center for Forest Health Research, USDA Forest Service, Hamden, CT, United States
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Effects of Temperature on Anoplophora chinensis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Adult Survival, Reproduction, and Egg Hatch. FORESTS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/f12040432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) is an invasive species that can damage many tree species in orchard, urban, and forested habitats. Adult survival, reproduction, and egg hatch of A. chinensis from Italy and China are evaluated at eight constant temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C) under laboratory conditions. The estimated Tmax for longevity was 42 and 33 °C for females and 42 and 39 °C for males from China and Italy, respectively. The estimated Tmax, Tmin, and optimum temperature for fecundity were 35, 9, and 29 °C, respectively. Females laid eggs at 15–30 °C and eggs hatched at 15–35 °C. Days to first oviposition increased exponentially from 13 days at 30 °C to >300 days near 10 °C. The estimated Tmin for egg hatch was 13 °C, the Tmax at 38 °C, and the optimum 29 °C. Percentage hatch was estimated to be highest at 26 °C and have a Tmax of 31 °C and Tmin of 10 °C. These results indicate that summer temperatures over a wide range of latitudes should support beetle survival and reproduction, but at temperatures ≥35 °C, oviposition ceases, and adult survivorship declines. In addition, females may survive into the fall, but lay fewer eggs that may not hatch. These responses of A. chinensis to temperature can be used for developing phenological models to predict the timing of stages for management or eradication efforts.
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Li C, Pei J, Li J, Liu X, Ren L, Luo Y. Overwintering Larval Cold Tolerance of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae): Geographic Variation in Northeast China. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12020116. [PMID: 33525756 PMCID: PMC7911264 DOI: 10.3390/insects12020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) is an invasive pest that has spread and established in many regions worldwide. However, its cold tolerance strategy is still unclear. We measured the supercooling point (SCP) and the lower lethal temperature (LLT) of overwintering S. noctilio larvae during three overwintering periods in four geographically separated populations in China. In addition, using the statistical analysis of the local historical temperature data, we also conducted comprehensive studies of S. noctilio cold tolerance variations and strategies. We measured the SCP of all samples as S. noctilio could survive at its SCP during a short period of exposure (<48 h) and its cold tolerance strategy was freeze-avoidance. The average SCPs of the groups in different spatiotemporal scales were significantly related to average temperature variation with most individuals exhibiting stronger cold hardiness at low ambient temperatures. S. noctilio exhibited a strong cold tolerance and it has the ability to withstand lower temperatures in cold environments. The geographic population showed a positive tendency as the ambient temperature decreased, which would increase its chance of developing in cold regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengcheng Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jiahe Pei
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jiale Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiaobo Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Lili Ren
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (L.R.); (Y.L.); Tel.: +86-10-62336840 (Y.L.)
| | - Youqing Luo
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, School of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; (C.L.); (J.P.); (J.L.); (X.L.)
- Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—INRAE, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: (L.R.); (Y.L.); Tel.: +86-10-62336840 (Y.L.)
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Javal M, Thomas S, Lehmann P, Barton MG, Conlong DE, Du Plessis A, Terblanche JS. The Effect of Oxygen Limitation on a Xylophagous Insect's Heat Tolerance Is Influenced by Life-Stage Through Variation in Aerobic Scope and Respiratory Anatomy. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1426. [PMID: 31824337 PMCID: PMC6879455 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Temperature has a profound impact on insect fitness and performance via metabolic, enzymatic or chemical reaction rate effects. However, oxygen availability can interact with these thermal responses in complex and often poorly understood ways, especially in hypoxia-adapted species. Here we test the hypothesis that thermal limits are reduced under low oxygen availability - such as might happen when key life-stages reside within plants - but also extend this test to attempt to explain that the magnitude of the effect of hypoxia depends on variation in key respiration-related parameters such as aerobic scope and respiratory morphology. Using two life-stages of a xylophagous cerambycid beetle, Cacosceles (Zelogenes) newmannii we assessed oxygen-limitation effects on metabolic performance and thermal limits. We complement these physiological assessments with high-resolution 3D (micro-computed tomography scan) morphometry in both life-stages. Results showed that although larvae and adults have similar critical thermal maxima (CTmax) under normoxia, hypoxia reduces metabolic rate in adults to a greater extent than it does in larvae, thus reducing aerobic scope in the former far more markedly. In separate experiments, we also show that adults defend a tracheal oxygen (critical) setpoint more consistently than do larvae, indicated by switching between discontinuous gas exchange cycles (DGC) and continuous respiratory patterns under experimentally manipulated oxygen levels. These effects can be explained by the fact that the volume of respiratory anatomy is positively correlated with body mass in adults but is apparently size-invariant in larvae. Thus, the two life-stages of C. newmannii display key differences in respiratory structure and function that can explain the magnitude of the effect of hypoxia on upper thermal limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Javal
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Saskia Thomas
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Philipp Lehmann
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Madeleine G. Barton
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Desmond E. Conlong
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
- South African Sugarcane Research Institute, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa
| | - Anton Du Plessis
- CT Scanner Facility, Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
- Physics Department, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - John S. Terblanche
- Department of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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