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Cicchinelli S, Pignataro G, Gemma S, Piccioni A, Picozzi D, Ojetti V, Franceschi F, Candelli M. PAMPs and DAMPs in Sepsis: A Review of Their Molecular Features and Potential Clinical Implications. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:962. [PMID: 38256033 PMCID: PMC10815927 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25020962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a serious organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated immune host reaction to a pathogen. The innate immunity is programmed to react immediately to conserved molecules, released by the pathogens (PAMPs), and the host (DAMPs). We aimed to review the molecular mechanisms of the early phases of sepsis, focusing on PAMPs, DAMPs, and their related pathways, to identify potential biomarkers. We included studies published in English and searched on PubMed® and Cochrane®. After a detailed discussion on the actual knowledge of PAMPs/DAMPs, we analyzed their role in the different organs affected by sepsis, trying to elucidate the molecular basis of some of the most-used prognostic scores for sepsis. Furthermore, we described a chronological trend for the release of PAMPs/DAMPs that may be useful to identify different subsets of septic patients, who may benefit from targeted therapies. These findings are preliminary since these pathways seem to be strongly influenced by the peculiar characteristics of different pathogens and host features. Due to these reasons, while initial findings are promising, additional studies are necessary to clarify the potential involvement of these molecular patterns in the natural evolution of sepsis and to facilitate their transition into the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cicchinelli
- Department of Emergency, S.S. Filippo e Nicola Hospital, 67051 Avezzano, Italy;
| | - Giulia Pignataro
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Stefania Gemma
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Andrea Piccioni
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Domitilla Picozzi
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Veronica Ojetti
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Francesco Franceschi
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
| | - Marcello Candelli
- Department of Emergency, Anesthesiological and Reanimation Sciences, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli—IRRCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.P.); (S.G.); (A.P.); (D.P.); (V.O.); (F.F.)
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Dai Y, Zhou J, Shi C. Inflammasome: structure, biological functions, and therapeutic targets. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e391. [PMID: 37817895 PMCID: PMC10560975 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammasomes are a group of protein complex located in cytoplasm and assemble in response to a wide variety of pathogen-associated molecule patterns, damage-associated molecule patterns, and cellular stress. Generally, the activation of inflammasomes will lead to maturation of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptotic cell death, both associated with inflammatory cascade amplification. A sensor protein, an adaptor, and a procaspase protein interact through their functional domains and compose one subunit of inflammasome complex. Under physiological conditions, inflammasome functions against pathogen infection and endogenous dangers including mtROS, mtDNA, and so on, while dysregulation of its activation can lead to unwanted results. In recent years, advances have been made to clarify the mechanisms of inflammasome activation, the structural details of them and their functions (negative/positive) in multiple disease models in both animal models and human. The wide range of the stimuli makes the function of inflammasome diverse and complex. Here, we review the structure, biological functions, and therapeutic targets of inflammasomes, while highlight NLRP3, NLRC4, and AIM2 inflammasomes, which are the most well studied. In conclusion, this review focuses on the activation process, biological functions, and structure of the most well-studied inflammasomes, summarizing and predicting approaches for disease treatment and prevention with inflammasome as a target. We aim to provide fresh insight into new solutions to the challenges in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Dai
- Institute of Rocket Force MedicineState Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical PoisoningArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Jing Zhou
- Institute of Rocket Force MedicineState Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical PoisoningArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
- Institute of ImmunologyArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Chunmeng Shi
- Institute of Rocket Force MedicineState Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical PoisoningArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
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3
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Zhou J, Zhuang Z, Li J, Feng Z. Significance of the cGAS-STING Pathway in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13316. [PMID: 37686127 PMCID: PMC10487967 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway plays a significant role in health and disease. In this pathway, cGAS, one of the major cytosolic DNA sensors in mammalian cells, regulates innate immunity and the STING-dependent production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including type-I interferon. Moreover, the cGAS-STING pathway is integral to other cellular processes, such as cell death, cell senescence, and autophagy. Activation of the cGAS-STING pathway by "self" DNA is also attributed to various infectious diseases and autoimmune or inflammatory conditions. In addition, the cGAS-STING pathway activation functions as a link between innate and adaptive immunity, leading to the inhibition or facilitation of tumorigenesis; therefore, research targeting this pathway can provide novel clues for clinical applications to treat infectious, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases and even cancer. In this review, we focus on the cGAS-STING pathway and its corresponding cellular and molecular mechanisms in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglin Zhou
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology, Biomedical Research Center of South China, College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University Qishan Campus, Fuzhou 350117, China
| | - Zhan Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of College of First Clinical Medicine, College of First Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Taijiang Campus, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Jiamian Li
- Key Laboratory of College of First Clinical Medicine, College of First Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Taijiang Campus, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Zhihua Feng
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Innate Immune Biology, Biomedical Research Center of South China, College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University Qishan Campus, Fuzhou 350117, China
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Jian Q, Ma Y. Pattern recognition receptor AIM2: Activation, regulation and the role in transplant immunology. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2022. [DOI: 10.1360/tb-2022-0661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Choudhury SKM, Ma X, Abdullah SW, Zheng H. Activation and Inhibition of the NLRP3 Inflammasome by RNA Viruses. J Inflamm Res 2021; 14:1145-1163. [PMID: 33814921 PMCID: PMC8009543 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s295706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation refers to the response of the immune system to viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, or other foreign particles in the body, which can involve the production of a wide array of soluble inflammatory mediators. It is important for the development of many RNA virus-infected diseases. The primary factors through which the infection becomes inflammation involve inflammasome. Inflammasomes are proteins complex that the activation is responsive to specific pathogens, host cell damage, and other environmental stimuli. Inflammasomes bring about the maturation of various pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-18 and IL-1β in order to mediate the innate immune defense mechanisms. Many RNA viruses and their components, such as encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) 2B viroporin, the viral RNA of hepatitis C virus, the influenza virus M2 viroporin, the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) small hydrophobic (SH) viroporin, and the human rhinovirus (HRV) 2B viroporin can activate the Nod-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome to influence the inflammatory response. On the other hand, several viruses use virus-encoded proteins to suppress inflammation activation, such as the influenza virus NS1 protein and the measles virus (MV) V protein. In this review, we summarize how RNA virus infection leads to the activation or inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Mohiuddin Choudhury
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - XuSheng Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Sahibzada Waheed Abdullah
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - HaiXue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, Gansu, People's Republic of China
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Jeffries AM, Marriott I. Cytosolic DNA Sensors and CNS Responses to Viral Pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:576263. [PMID: 33042875 PMCID: PMC7525022 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.576263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral central nervous system (CNS) infections can lead to life threatening encephalitis and long-term neurological deficits in survivors. Resident CNS cell types, such as astrocytes and microglia, are known to produce key inflammatory and antiviral mediators following infection with neurotropic DNA viruses. However, the mechanisms by which glia mediate such responses remain poorly understood. Recently, a class of intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), collectively known as DNA sensors, have been identified in both leukocytic and non-leukocytic cell types. The ability of such DNA sensors to initiate immune mediator production and contribute to infection resolution in the periphery is increasingly recognized, but our understanding of their role in the CNS remains limited at best. In this review, we describe the evidence for the expression and functionality of DNA sensors in resident brain cells, with a focus on their role in neurotropic virus infections. The available data indicate that glia and neurons can constitutively express, and/or can be induced to express, various disparate DNA sensing molecules previously described in peripheral cell types. Furthermore, multiple lines of investigation suggest that these sensors are functional in resident CNS cells and are required for innate immune responses to viral infections. However, it is less clear whether DNA sensormediated glial responses are beneficial or detrimental, and the answer to this question appears to dependent on the context of the infection with regard to the identity of the pathogen, host cell type, and host species. Defining such parameters will be essential if we are to successfully target these molecules to limit damaging inflammation while allowing beneficial host responses to improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M Jeffries
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
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Wang L, Sun L, Byrd KM, Ko CC, Zhao Z, Fang J. AIM2 Inflammasome's First Decade of Discovery: Focus on Oral Diseases. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1487. [PMID: 32903550 PMCID: PMC7438472 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A common feature of many acute and chronic oral diseases is microbial-induced inflammation. Innate immune responses are the first line of defense against pathogenic microorganisms and are initiated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that specifically recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and danger-associated molecular patterns. The activation of certain PRRs can lead to the assembly of macromolecular oligomers termed inflammasomes, which are responsible for pro-inflammatory cytokine maturation and secretion and thus activate host inflammatory responses. About 10 years ago, the absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) was independently discovered by four research groups, and among the “canonical” inflammasomes [including AIM2, NLR family pyrin domain (NLRP)1, NLRP3, NLR family apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP)/NLR family, caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD) containing (NLRC)4, and pyrin], AIM2 so far is the only one that simultaneously acts as a cytosolic DNA sensor due to its DNA-binding ability. Undoubtedly, such a double-faceted role gives AIM2 greater mission and more potential in the mediation of innate immune responses. Therefore, AIM2 has garnered much attention from the broad scientific community during its first 10 years of discovery (2009–2019). How the AIM2 inflammasome is related to oral diseases has aroused debate over the past few years and is under active investigation. AIM2 inflammasome may potentially be a key link between oral diseases and innate immunity. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of the AIM2 inflammasome and its critical role in the pathogenesis of various oral diseases, which might offer future possibilities for disease prevention and targeted therapy utilizing this continued understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lufei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Lu Sun
- Department of Oral Medicine, Infection and Immunity, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kevin M Byrd
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Health Sciences, University of North Carolina Adams School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Ching-Chang Ko
- Division of Orthodontics, The Ohio State University College of Dentistry, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Zhenxing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jie Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Kumari P, Russo AJ, Shivcharan S, Rathinam VA. AIM2 in health and disease: Inflammasome and beyond. Immunol Rev 2020; 297:83-95. [PMID: 32713036 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Nucleic acid sensing is a critical mechanism by which the immune system monitors for pathogen invasion. A set of germline-encoded innate immune receptors detect microbial DNA in various compartments of the cell, such as endosomes, the cytosol, and the nucleus. Sensing of microbial DNA through these receptors stimulates, in most cases, interferon regulatory factor-dependent type I IFN synthesis followed by JAK/STAT-dependent interferon-stimulated gene expression. In contrast, the detection of DNA in the cytosol by AIM2 assembles a macromolecular complex called the inflammasome, which unleashes the proteolytic activity of a cysteine protease caspase-1. Caspase-1 cleaves and activates the pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18 and a pore-forming protein, gasdermin D, which triggers pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death. Research over the past decade has revealed that AIM2 plays essential roles not only in host defense against pathogens but also in inflammatory diseases, autoimmunity, and cancer in inflammasome-dependent and inflammasome-independent manners. This review discusses the latest advancements in our understanding of AIM2 biology and its functions in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puja Kumari
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Ashley J Russo
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Sonia Shivcharan
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Vijay A Rathinam
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
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Wang B, Bhattacharya M, Roy S, Tian Y, Yin Q. Immunobiology and structural biology of AIM2 inflammasome. Mol Aspects Med 2020; 76:100869. [PMID: 32660715 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2020.100869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) is a cytoplasmic sensor that upon recognizing double-stranded DNA assembles with apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) and procaspase-1 to form the multi-protein complex AIM2 inflammasome. Double-stranded DNA from bacterial, viral, or host cellular origins triggers AIM2 inflammasome assembly and activation, ultimately resulting in secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptotic cell death in order to eliminate microbial infection. Many pathogens therefore evade or suppress AIM2 inflammasome to establish infection. On the other hand, AIM2 activation is tightly controlled by multiple cellular factors to prevent autoinflammation. Extensive structural studies have captured the molecular details of multiple steps in AIM2 inflammasome assembly. The structures collectively revealed a nucleated polymerization mechanism that not only pervades each step of AIM2 inflammasome assembly, but also underlies assembly of other inflammasomes and complexes in immune signaling. In this article, we briefly review the identification of AIM2 as a cytoplasmic DNA sensor, summarize the importance of AIM2 inflammasome in infections and diseases, and discuss the molecular mechanisms of AIM2 assembly, activation, and regulation using recent cellular, biochemical, and structural results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Wang
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA
| | - Madhurima Bhattacharya
- Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA
| | - Sayantan Roy
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA
| | - Yuan Tian
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA
| | - Qian Yin
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA; Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32301, USA.
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Riva G, Biolatti M, Pecorari G, Dell’Oste V, Landolfo S. PYHIN Proteins and HPV: Role in the Pathogenesis of Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Microorganisms 2019; 8:microorganisms8010014. [PMID: 31861809 PMCID: PMC7023031 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decades, the human papillomavirus (HPV) emerged as an etiological cause of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), especially in the oropharynx. The role of two intracellular DNA sensors, which belong to the PYHIN family (interferon-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) and absent in melanoma 2 protein (AIM2)), has been analyzed in relation to HPV infection and head and neck carcinogenesis. In particular, IFI16 and AIM2 expression depends on HPV infection in HNSCC. They represent viral restriction factors and are key components of the intrinsic immunity activated against different viruses, including HPV. This review analyzed and summarized the recent findings about the role of PYHIN proteins in HPV+ and HPV− HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Riva
- Otorhinolaryngology Division, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy; (G.R.); (G.P.)
| | - Matteo Biolatti
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy; (M.B.); (V.D.)
| | - Giancarlo Pecorari
- Otorhinolaryngology Division, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy; (G.R.); (G.P.)
| | - Valentina Dell’Oste
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy; (M.B.); (V.D.)
| | - Santo Landolfo
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy; (M.B.); (V.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-011-670-5636
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