Advances in periodontal disease markers

Salivary assessment of the immune/inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in older adults vaccinated with CoronaVac or ChadOx-1

BACKGROUND

Although important information concerning COVID-19 vaccination is available, the effects of the CoronaVac and ChadOx-1 vaccines on immunity and the redox balance in the upper airway mucosa of the aged population are not fully understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of two doses of the CoronaVac or ChadOx-1 vaccine on immune/inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in the airway mucosa of older adults.

METHODS

Seventy-six older adults of both sexes, with a mean age of 75.1 ± 6.4 years, were separated according to vaccination status into the CoronaVac (n = 52) and ChadOx-1 (n = 24) groups. Saliva samples were collected before (pre) and 30 days after (post) the administration of the second dose of the CoronaVac or ChadOx-1 vaccine to assess the levels of antibodies (sIgA and IgG), antimicrobial peptides, cytokines, and oxidant/antioxidant agents.

RESULTS

The immunogenicity in the ChadOx-1 group was 37.5% for sIgA and 25% for IgG, while that in the CoronaVac group was 18.9% for sIgA and 13.2% for IgG. Intergroup analysis revealed that (1) lower levels of IFN-α, IFN-γ, and IL-10 and a greater IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio, in addition to a greater IL-6/IL-10 ratio, were found in both the pre- and postvaccination periods, and (2) lower levels of total sIgA, IL-12p70, IL-17A, TNF-α, and the IL-12p70/IL-10 ratio, in addition to higher levels of specific sIgA for SARS-CoV-2 antigens and lysozyme, were observed only in the postvaccination period in the ChadOx-1 group than in the CoronaVac group. Intragroup analysis revealed (1) a significant increase in the salivary levels of total peroxides in the postvaccination period compared to those in the prevaccination period in both volunteer groups; (2) a decrease in the levels of lysozyme and the ratio between total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total peroxides in the postvaccination period in the CoronaVac group compared with those in the prevaccination period; and (3) decreases in the TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12p70 levels, and the IL-12p70/IL-10 ratio in the ChadoX-1 group, as well as a higher lactoferrin concentration in the postvaccination period than in the prevaccination period. Several positive and negative correlations between the parameters assessed here were found.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, the ChadOx-1 group exhibited improvements in both immune/inflammatory responses and redox balance and greater immunogenicity than did the CoronaVac group.

Decreased GCF DEL-1 and increased GCF neutrophils with increasing probing pocket depth

PURPOSE

Developmental endothelial locus-1 (DEL-1) plays a role in regulating neutrophil migration within the periodontium. The objective of this study was to evaluate the levels of DEL-1 in saliva and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), as well as the number of neutrophils in patients with periodontitis.

METHODS

Forty systemically healthy, non-smoking periodontitis patients participated in this study. Clinical periodontal parameters, including the plaque index, probing pocket depth (PPD), clinical attachment level, bleeding on probing, modified sulcular bleeding index, and marginal bone level, were measured. Levels of DEL-1, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in unstimulated saliva samples, as well as DEL-1 in the GCF of 3 teeth from each participant, were assessed. Neutrophil counts in oral rinse and GCF samples were recorded. Spearman correlation coefficients were used to examine the correlation between protein levels, clinical parameters, and neutrophil quantities. Participants were divided into 2 age groups (those under 50 years and those 50 years or older) in order to investigate potential age-related differences.

RESULTS

DEL-1 levels in the GCF showed a negative relationship with PPD (sum). Neutrophils in oral rinse samples were positively correlated with PPD, IL-8, and IL-1β levels. Neutrophils in GCF exhibited a positive correlation with PPD (sum). Salivary DEL-1 levels showed correlations with IL-8 and IL-1β, but not with the clinical parameters of periodontitis.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative relationship observed between PPD and GCF DEL-1 levels is consistent with the proposed protective role of DEL-1.

Comparative evaluation of periodontal health status of pre and postmenopausal females

BACKGROUND

Menopause in females is a corporeal stage that gives rise to a number of adaptive changes both at systemic and oral levels, prototypically occurring in the late fourth or fifth decade of life. Though physiological aging affects the oral tissue, the hormonal changes due to menopause also act as a major contributing factor in deteriorating the health of oral tissues. Thus, the main aim of our study was to compare the overall periodontal status and alkaline phosphatase levels in the saliva of females in their pre and postmenopausal ages.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study was conducted on 200 female subjects coming to the Department of Periodontology at Rajendra Institute of Medical Science for oral prophylaxis. The subjects were arbitrarily selected in the age group ranging from 15 to 70 years and were further divided based on the inclusion criteria. Group A included 100 subjects with age ranging from 15 to 45 years, and group B, 100 subjects with age 54 to 70 years. Signs of periodontitis including clinical attachment loss, furcation involvement, and probing depth and salivary alkaline levels were obtained, evaluated, compared, and analyzed.

RESULTS

In group A 65% of patients had grade 0 and 28% had grade 1 of clinical attachment level. Similarly in group B, 44% of the total had grade 0 of clinical attachment loss, 38% had grade 1, and 18% were of grade 2. On evaluating grades of furcation involvement, around 45% of the total patients in group A were grade 1 (incipient, pocket formation), while in group B, 51% of the total patients were grade 1. At least 46% in group A and only 20% in group B had no signs of furcation involvement. Salivary alkaline phosphatase levels in pre and postmenopausal patients showed a significant difference between the two groups was obtained.

CONCLUSION

The study concluded a major difference in the periodontal health of pre and postmenopausal women with many influencing factors apart from menopause itself.

Saliva Metabolomic Profile in Dental Medicine Research: A Narrative Review

Metabolomic research tends to increase in popularity over the years, leading to the identification of new biomarkers related to specific health disorders. Saliva is one of the most newly introduced and systematically developed biofluids in the human body that can serve as an informative substance in the metabolomic profiling armamentarium. This review aims to analyze the current knowledge regarding the human salivary metabolome, its alterations due to physiological, environmental and external factors, as well as the limitations and drawbacks presented in the most recent research conducted, focusing on pre—analytical and analytical workflows. Furthermore, the use of the saliva metabolomic profile as a promising biomarker for several oral pathologies, such as oral cancer and periodontitis will be investigated.

Salivary oxidative stress during and after rapid maxillary expansion

Objectives:

The objectives of the study were to evaluate oxidative stress biomarkers during a rapid maxillary expansion (RME).

Material and Methods:

Fourteen patients were treated with an acrylic RME device, and after treatment, all were followed for 3 months. Saliva samples were collected before activation (baseline), 1st, 10th days after the first activation, and after retention. Periodontal indexes were recorded at baseline and after retention. Nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were evaluated.

Results:

NO levels were elevated on the 10th day compared to baseline (P < 0.01), revealing a decrease after retention (P < 0.01). MDA levels were increased on the 10th day and after retention periods compared to baseline (P < 0.01, respectively). Both plaque and gingival indexes increased after retention relative to baseline (P < 0.01, respectively).

Conclusion:

Initial stages of orthopedic force increased salivary oxidative stress biomarkers. Long-term results showed decreased levels of NO, but still high MDA levels. The initially increased NO expression decreased after retention, despite the increase in microbial load at this period which might show the effect of mechanical stimuli to be more effective than the microbial load. MDA levels remained at high levels during the post-retention period, arising a possible consideration for the impact of material properties or deficiencies of oral hygiene. Future long-term evaluations for oxidative stress status and orthodontic appliances would be useful.

Role of Inhibitor SMADs in Stage 3 Grade B periodontitis before and after periodontal treatment

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the levels of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and inhibitory-Smads (I-Smads) in saliva and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) in patients with Stage 3 Grade B periodontitis before and after non-surgical periodontal treatment.

BACKGROUND

Recently, it has been stated that Smads play an active role in all conditions where TGF-β is involved, including periodontal inflammation.

METHODS

Twenty healthy participants (control) and 20 patients with Stage 3, Grade B periodontitis were recruited. GCF and saliva samples and clinical periodontal recordings were investigated at the baseline and 1 month after treatment. TGF-β and I-Smads (Smads 6 and 7) were determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

Salivary Smad6 and Smad7 levels were significantly lower in the periodontitis group than healthy controls (p < .05), while there was no difference in salivary TGF-β levels between groups at baseline (p > .05). The total amounts and concentrations of GCF TGF-β, Smad6, and Smad7 were significantly lower in the periodontitis group than healthy controls at baseline (p < .05), and then decreased in concentration levels with treatment (p < .001). Positive correlations were found between total amounts and concentrations of GCF TGF-β, Smad6, and Smad7 (p < .05).

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed that Smad6 and Smad7 in GCF and saliva decreased in periodontitis and then increased after periodontal treatment. Our study suggests that I-Smads act in parallel with TGF-β in periodontal inflammation and may have a role in the development of periodontitis.

Comparing the efficiency of Er,Cr:YSGG laser and diode laser for the treatment of generalized aggressive periodontitis

BACKGROUND

This study aims to determine the effects of Er,Cr:YSGG and diode laser treatments on IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α levels in patients with generalized aggressive periodontitis.

METHODS

Twenty-six generalized aggressive periodontitis patients were enrolled in the study. We performed three treatment models: "scaling and root planning (SRP-only)," "SRP + Er,Cr:YSGG laser," and "SRP + diode laser." Each experimental quadrant was randomly allocated to the control group or the test group. The IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α levels were analyzed with an enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay.

RESULTS

When the baseline and post-treatment IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α levels were compared, the most significant difference was observed in the SRP + Er,Cr:YSGG group and the least difference was observed in the SRP-only group.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of Er,Cr:YSGG laser as an addition to the conventional mechanical periodontal treatment was found to be more successful than the diode laser + SRP use in aggressive periodontitis treatment.

SP, N. M, Barik AK, Pai KM, Unnikrishnan VK, George SD, Kartha VB, Chidangil S. Photonics of human saliva: potential optical methods for the screening of abnormal health conditions and infections

Human saliva can be treated as a pool of biological markers able to reflect on the state of personal health. Recent years have witnessed an increase in the use of optical devices for the analysis of body fluids. Several groups have carried out studies investigating the potential of saliva as a non-invasive and reliable clinical specimen for use in medical diagnostics. This brief review aims to highlight the optical technologies, mainly surface plasmon resonance (SPR), Raman, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, which are being used for the probing of saliva for diverse biomedical applications. Advances in bio photonics offer the promise of unambiguous, objective and fast detection of abnormal health conditions and viral infections (such as COVID-19) from the analysis of saliva.

Intrapocket application of tea tree oil gel in the treatment of stage 2 periodontitis

BACKGROUND

The gold standard in treatment of periodontitis is mechanical removing of dental biofilm but using local delivery drugs as adjunctive to SRP is widely used to modulate inflammatory host and eradicate microbes. Tea tree oil (TTO) has a broad-spectrum antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant effect. This study aimed to assess clinically and biochemically the effect of intrapocket application of TTO (Melaleuca alternifolia) gel adjunctive to scaling and root planing (SRP) in the treatment of stage 2 (moderate) periodontitis and to correlate the biochemical levels with clinical response.

METHODS

A randomized, controlled clinical trial was conducted on thirty patients with stage 2 periodontitis. Patients were equally divided into two groups: Control Group treated with (SRP) alone and Test Group treated with SRP and locally delivered 5% TTO gel. Clinical assessment included pocket probing depth (PPD), clinical attachment loss (CAL), gingival index (GI) and bleeding on probing (BOP) measured at baseline and after 3 and 6 months. The level of matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8), in the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) was also assessed at baseline and after1, 3 and 6 months by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. Chi-square, Student t- tests, Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman correlation were the statistical tests used in the study.

RESULTS

An improvement of all clinical and biochemical parameters was observed (at p < 0.001) in both groups. A significant difference between the two groups was found in both clinical and biochemical parameters.

CONCLUSION

The local delivery of TTO gel adjunctive to SRP proved to be effective in the treatment of stage II periodontitis. Trial registration The study was retrospectively registered at clinicaltrials.gov NCT04769271, on 24/2/2021.

Evaluation of Salivary Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP-8) in Periodontal Patients Undergoing Non-Surgical Periodontal Therapy and Mouthwash Based on Ozonated Olive Oil: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Background: Extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a pivotal role in the damage to the periodontal tissue in patients with periodontitis. Scaling and root planning (SRP) attempt to control the plaque amount and consequentially reduce the bacterial load. Non-surgical periodontal treatment could be integrated with drug therapy and physiotherapy procedures such as ozone therapy. The aim of this study was to evaluate in a cohort of patients with a diagnosis of periodontitis: (1) the efficacy of non-surgical periodontal therapy assisted by the use of ozonated olive oil-based mouthwash on salivary metalloproteinase (MMP-8) and (2) the reduction of periodontal indices. Methods: Ninety-six subjects with a diagnosis of periodontitis were enrolled in this study and randomly assigned to the study group (SRP + mouthwash) or control group (SRP). The study duration was 3 months. Data on MMP-8, plaque index (PI), bleeding on probing (BoP) and probing pocket depth (PPD) were recorded at T0, T1 (14 days), T2 (1 month) and T3 (6 months). Group differences were assessed using Student's t-test for independent samples. Results: A significant improvement in PI, BoP, PPD and salivary MMP-8 levels was observed in both groups. An analysis of differences in relative changes of indices revealed the efficacy of ozonated olive oil in decreasing MMP-8 level. Simultaneously, it slowed the decrease of BoP index. Conclusions: Scaling and root plaining with the aid of ozonated olive oil mouthwash were found to be more effective on salivary MMP-8 reduction than scaling and root plaining alone.

Evaluation of salivary biomarkers of periodontitis among smokers and nonsmokers: A novel study

Background:

The analysis of salivary enzymes contributes to the clarification of pathogenesis and improvement in the diagnosis of periodontal disease. The present study aimed to examine the prospective association between smoking and periodontal disease progression and the effects of smoking on the following salivary biomarkers related to periodontitis: Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), acid phosphatase (ACP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatinine (CRE), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), urea (UA), free-hemoglobin (f-Hb), and neopterin.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 64 male patients aged 21–60 years were recruited and grouped as Group 1: 16 healthy nonsmokers, who had never smoked. Group 2: 16 smokers with gingivitis. Group 3: 16 smokers with moderate periodontitis. Group 4: 16 smokers with severe periodontitis. Stimulated saliva was collected for at least 5 min and clinical measurements; salivary biomarkers were assessed in automated analyzer.

Results:

Data showed significant correlation among salivary ACP, AST, LDH, CRE, BUN, UA, and f-Hb and neopterin levels showed higher in group 4 compared with other groups.

Conclusion:

This study indicated that smoking has several detrimental effects on periodontal tissues. A higher level of salivary biomarkers was seen in smokers with severe periodontitis. Hence, these biomarkers are helpful in future for the earlier detection of periodontal diseases progression and can also be used as potential salivary biomarkers for assessing smoking status and severity in chronic periodontitis.

Expression of mast cell in aggressive periodontitis

BACKGROUND

Aggressive periodontitis is a progressive disease that can cause tooth loss within a short period of time. Mast cells are found in tissues with various allergic and inflammatory conditions including periodontal disease through the release of cytokines, chemokines, and proteolytic enzymes. Given the findings of some studies on the related role of mast cells, this study was conducted to determine the number of mast cells in aggressive periodontitis.

METHODS

This study was conducted on 30 participants divided into two groups visiting the Faculty of Dentistry of University of Medical Sciences. A total of 15 participants with aggressive periodontitis and 15 healthy participants were investigated. For counting mast cells, toluidine blue staining was used. The percentage of mast cells and demographic factors were evaluated in the two groups and the results were analyzed in SPSS using descriptive statistics and independent t-tests. A P value <0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

The mean percentage of mast cells in the aggressive periodontitis group was 27.1±8.9 which was significantly higher than that of the healthy group, i.e. 12.6±5.1 (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In general, the results of the study showed that the percentage of mast cells in the aggressive periodontitis group was more than two times higher than that of the healthy group, which is indicative of an increase in the number of mast cells in aggressive periodontitis disease.

Possible interaction between visfatin, periodontal infection, and other systemic diseases: A brief review of literature

Gingivitis and periodontitis are common bacterial infections caused by a variety of microorganisms. Despite the microorganisms’ roles as etiologic agents, inflammation-induced substances also have crucial parts in the loss of connective tissue and the supporting alveolar bone. Visfatin is a pleiotropic mediator, which acts as growth factor, cytokine, and pre-B-cell colony-enhancing factor. A positive correlation was detected between the serum/plasma levels of visfatin and inflammatory disorders such as diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. In addition, the visfatin level was higher in saliva and the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of subjects with periodontal disease. This review defined current, predictable patterns of possible interaction of visfatin with periodontal infection and other systemic diseases, using PubMed and Medline databases searching for articles written in English. Peer-reviewed articles were targeted using the following keywords: “visfatin,” “periodontal disease,” “inflammatory mediator,” and “biomarker.” Available full-text articles were read, and related articles were also scrutinized, while a hand search was also performed. Search was confined to human studies, and articles written in English and published between 1985 and 2016 were selected. It was concluded that periodontal infection and other systemic diseases could be related to the levels of visfatin in GCF, saliva, and serum as a biomarker of these diseases.

Effects of Er,Cr:YSGG and Diode Lasers on Clinical Parameters and Gingival Crevicular Fluid IL-1β and IL-37 Levels in Generalized Aggressive Periodontitis

Aim

The objective of the current study is to analyze the correlation between cytokine levels and periodontal parameters in aggressive periodontitis patients before and after periodontal treatment that was performed by using two different laser therapies.

Materials and Methods

Twenty-six generalized aggressive periodontitis patients were treated with three different methods (SRP, SRP+diode laser, and SRP+Er,Cr:YSGG laser) applied to three different half-jaws in the same patients. Pre- and posttreatment clinical periodontal parameters and GCF IL-1β and IL-37 levels were measured.

Results

There was a statistically significant decrease (p < 0.05) between pretreatment and posttreatment clinical periodontal parameters and IL-1β and IL-37 levels. When the reduction rates of IL-37 and IL-1β levels after treatment were evaluated, the decrease in IL-37 and IL-1β levels after treatment was lowest in the SRP group and highest in the SRP+Er,Cr:YSGG group. In addition, the amount of decrease in IL-1β in SRP+diode and SRP+Er,Cr:YSGG groups was found to be higher than that in IL-37. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between IL-37 and IL-1β in all groups (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Er,Cr:YSGG laser is more effective than diode laser for the treatment of aggressive periodontitis. IL-37 and IL-1β are cytokines that function together and thus must be evaluated together.

Clinical attachment loss and molecular profile of inflamed sites before treatment

Objective:

To monitor early periodontal disease progression and to investigate clinical and molecular profile of inflamed sites by means of crevicular fluid and gingival biopsy analysis.

Methodology:

Eighty-one samples of twenty-seven periodontitis subjects and periodontally healthy individuals were collected for the study. Measurements of clinical parameters were recorded at day −15, baseline and 2 months after basic periodontal treatment aiming at monitoring early variations ofthe clinical attachment level. Saliva, crevicular fluid and gingival biopsies were harvested from clinically inflamed and non-inflamed sites from periodontal patients and from control sites of healthy patients for the assessment of IL-10, MMP-8, VEGF, RANKL, OPG and TGF-β1 protein and gene expression levels.

Results:

Baseline IL-10 protein levels from inflamed sites were higher in comparison to both non-inflamed and control sites (p<0.05). Higher expression of mRNA for IL-10, RANK-L, OPG, e TGF-β1 were also observed in inflamed sites at day −15 prior treatment (p<0.05). After the periodontal treatment and the resolution of inflammation, seventeen percent of evaluated sites still showed clinically detectable attachment loss without significant differences in the molecular profile.

Conclusions:

Clinical attachment loss is a negative event that may occur even after successful basic periodontal therapy, but it is small and limited to a small percentage of sites. Elevated inflammation markers of inflamed sites from disease patients reduced to the mean levels of those observed in healthy subjects after successful basic periodontal therapy. Significantly elevated both gene and protein levels of IL-10 in inflamed sites prior treatment confirms its modulatory role in the disease status.

Deep sequencing salivary proteins for periodontitis using proteomics

OBJECTIVES

Saliva is a bodily fluid transuded from gingival crevice fluid and blood and contains many proteins. Proteins in saliva have been studied as markers for periodontal diseases. Mass spectrometric analysis is applied to investigate biomarker proteins that are related to periodontitis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Saliva samples were collected from 207 participants including 36 pairs matched for age, sex, and smoking who joined Yangpyeong health cohort. Periodontitis was defined by 2005 5th European guideline. Shotgun proteomics was applied to detect proteins from saliva samples. Principal component analysis and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis for canonical pathway and protein pathway were applied. Protein-protein interaction was also applied. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to verify the candidate protein markers among another matched participants (n = 80).

RESULTS

Shotgun proteomics indicated that salivary S100A8 and S100A9 were candidate biomarkers for periodontitis. ELISA confirmed that both salivary S100A8 and S100A9 were higher in those with periodontitis compared to those without periodontitis (paired-t test, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Our proteomics data showed that S100A8 and S100A9 in saliva could be candidate biomarkers for periodontitis. The rapid-test-kit using salivary S100A8 and S100A9 will be a practical tool for reducing the risk of periodontitis and promotion of periodontal health.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

A rapid-test-kit using salivary biomarkers, S100A8 and S100A9, could be utilized by clinicians and individuals for screening periodontitis, which might reduce the morbidity of periodontitis and promote periodontal health.

Evaluation of Salivary Lipid Peroxidation End Product Level in Dental Caries

BACKGROUND

Tissue destruction can be measured by the level of lipid peroxidation (LP) end products. Since free radicals are very reactive with low survival time, the level of free radicals and oxidative stress activity are measured indirectly by tissue damage end product assessment, i.e. Malondialdehyde (MDA) that is a final end product of LP.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate salivary MDA level as an indicator of oxidative stress; in caries-active and caries-free students.

METHODS

A total of 100 male and female students, 15-17 years of age, participated in this casecontrol study. Five mL of whole saliva was obtained. Salivary MDA level was measured spectrophotometrically. Statistical comparisons were performed with Student's t-test, using SPSS 13.

RESULTS

Salivary MDA level was significantly higher in the caries-active group compared to the control caries-free group. MDA was also slightly lower in males.

CONCLUSION

Higher MDA level might indicate caries-induced oxidative stress. In this study there was a relationship between salivary MDA level and dental caries. Therefore oxidative stress suppression might prevent caries initiation and progression.

Salivary arginase activity after mechanical-chemical therapy

Abstract Introduction Salivary components can be used as biomarkers for diagnosing and monitoring oral diseases. There is evidence that one potential biomarker, arginase, is associated with the inflammatory processes of periodontal disease, and its enzymatic activity is reduced according to the improvement in the clinical parameters after treatment. Objective The present study aimed to evaluate the salivary arginase activity in gingivitis and periodontitis patients treated with full-mouth mechanical procedures combined with the adjunctive use of essential oils or chlorhexidine mouthwash, respectively. Material and method Twenty-six gingivitis and 16 periodontitis patients received complete periodontal examinations at the baseline and 3 months after therapy, in which the periodontal probing depth, clinical attachment loss, plaque index, and gingival index measurements were taken. At these same appointments, the salivary total protein level and salivary arginase activity were also established via spectrophotometry. Result There were improvements in all of the clinical parameters (p < 0.05) evaluated from the baseline to 3 months in both groups. In addition, the salivary arginase activity and total protein levels were reduced after the gingivitis treatment. Conclusion Similar to the clinical results, both therapeutic protocols positively affected the salivary arginase activity; however, further studies are necessary to clarify its potential as a salivary biomarker for periodontal monitoring.

Impact of Saliva Collection and Processing Methods on Aspartate Aminotransferase, Creatin Kinase and Lactate Dehydrogenase Activities

We aimed to investigate the impact of saliva collection and processing methods on AST, CK and LDH. Saliva was collected from 17 healthy participants by a passive drool. Each saliva sample was distributed into 3 aliquots: not treated, centrifuged, and passed through cotton. Centrifugation improved the precision of assays and produced lower values of AST and CK. The use of cotton resulted in decreased levels of LDH. This data stress the importance of the standardization of sample processing to measure enzymes in saliva.

Comparative Evaluation of Cytokines in Gingival Crevicular Fluid and Saliva of Patients with Aggressive Periodontitis

Objectives

This study aims to evaluate and compare cytokines in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and saliva of patients with aggressive periodontitis (AP) before and after treatment.

Methods

Forty AP patients and 40 healthy volunteers were enrolled in this study. Clinical parameters included probing depth and sulcus bleeding index. GCF and saliva were collected from both groups. The levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α were measured using ELISA.

Results

The probing depth in AP patients was significantly deeper before treatment than after treatment. The concentrations of cytokines in GCF and saliva were significantly higher in AP patients than in the control group and decreased after periodontal treatment. Positive relationships were found between cytokine levels in GCF and clinical parameters. The reliability of cytokines in GCF and saliva was assessed by Cronbach's alpha analysis, which could be considered satisfactory.

Conclusion

Cytokine levels in GCF and saliva correlated well with clinical parameters and AP. Measurements of cytokines in saliva may be regarded as a noninvasive and quick method for monitoring periodontal disease activity.

The periodontal pocket

Periodontal disease is synonymous with the presence of periodontal pockets, and very often the clinical success of periodontal therapy is based on periodontal pocket depth reduction. Therefore, in the fields of periodontology and implant dentistry, significant research effort has been placed on the etiopathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of periodontal/peri-implant disease and as a consequence on pocket pathology. In this volume of Periodontology 2000, the in-depth reviews include topics ranging from preclinical models, anatomy and structure of tissues, and molecular and bacterial components, to treatments of pockets around teeth and implants. These reviews aim to provide the readers with current and future perspectives on the different areas of research into the periodontal pocket.

[The origin of hydrogen peroxide in oral cavity and its role in oral microecology balance]

Hydrogen peroxide, an important antimicrobial agent in oral cavity, plays a significant role in the balance of oral microecology. At the early stage of biofilm formation, about 80% of the detected initial colonizers belong to the genus Streptococcus. These oral streptococci use different oxidase to produce hydrogen peroxide. Recent studies showed that the produced hydrogen peroxide plays a critical role in modulating oral microecology. Hydrogen peroxide modulates biofilm development attributed to its growth inhibitory nature. Hydrogen peroxide production is closely associated with extracellular DNA(eDNA) release from microbe and the development of its competent cell which are critical for biofilm development and also serves as source for horizontal gene transfer. Microbe also can reduce the damage to themselves through several detoxification mechanisms. Moreover, hydrogen peroxide is also involved in the regulation of interactions between oral microorganisms and host. Taken together, hydrogen peroxide is an imperative ecological factor that contributes to the microbial equilibrium in the oral cavity. Here we will give a brief review of both the origin and the function in the oral microecology balance of hydrogen peroxide.

The Immune Response in Periodontal Tissues

The uniqueness of periodontal diseases is caused by several factors. This group of diseases is caused by numerous bacterial species formed in the dental biofilm, and one cannot distinguish the specific pathogen that is responsible for the disease initiation or progress (though Gram-negative anaerobic rods are associated with the advanced form of the disease). The disease is both infectious and inflammatory in its nature, and in the state of health there is always a subclinical level of inflammatory response, caused by the so-called harmless bacteria. Negligence in oral hygiene may result in maturation of the biofilm and trigger host response, manifesting clinically as gingivitis or-later and in susceptible subjects-as periodontitis. The article presents the contemporary knowledge of the inflammatory reaction occurring in tissues surrounding the tooth during periodontal inflammation. The most important mechanisms are described, together with implications for clinicists.

Effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment on transferrin serum levels in patients with chronic periodontitis

Background. Transferrin is a negative acute phase protein, which decreases during inflammation and infection. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate changes in the transferrin serum levels subsequent to non-surgical treatment of chronic periodontal disease. Methods. Twenty patients with chronic periodontitis and 20 systemically healthy subjects without periodontal disease, who had referred to Tabriz Faculty of Dentistry, were selected. Transferrin serum levels and clinical periodontal parameters (pocket depth, clinical attachment level, gingival index, bleeding index and plaque index) were measured at baseline and 3 months after non-surgical periodontal treatment. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistical methods (means ± standard deviations). Independent samples t-test was used to compare transferrin serum levels and clinical variables between the test and control groups. Paired samples t-test was used in the test group for comparisons before and after treatment. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05. Results. The mean transferrin serum level in patients with chronic periodontitis (213.1 ± 9.2 mg/dL) was significantly less than that in periodontally healthy subjects (307.8 ± 11.7 mg/dL). Three months after periodontal treatment, the transferrin serum level increased significantly (298.3 ± 7.6 mg/dL) and approached the levels in periodontally healthy subjects (P < 0.05). Conclusion. The decrease and increase in transferrin serum levels with periodontal disease and periodontal treatment, respectively, indicated an inverse relationship between transferrin serum levels and chronic periodontitis.

Evaluation of inflammation during fixed orthodontic treatment

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess effects of fixed orthodontic therapy on high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) level, CBC parameters and levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), urea, creatinine, sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), total protein (TP), and albumin (Alb).

DESIGN

Blood samples (7ml) were drawn at baseline, on days 1 and 7, and three months after placement of braces in the study group, while only one blood sample was drawn at baseline in the control group. Serum hs-CRP levels were measured by nephelometric method. Friedman two-way variance analysis was used to assess values with skewed distribution obtained at baseline, on days 1 and 7, in the third month. Wilcoxon rank sign test was performed if median values were unequal.

RESULTS

During measurement periods, there were significant increases in hs-CRP level, WBC count and neutrophil count while a significant decrease in Na level (p<0.05). K level was significantly decreased on the day 1. No significant differences were detected in other biochemical parameters evaluated.

CONCLUSION

Elevation in serum hs-CRP levels and neutrophil: lymphocyte ratio within first 3 months indicates that a systemic immune response develops against therapy in patients undergoing fixed orthodontic therapy.

Colorimetric Assay for the Detection of Typical Biomarkers for Periodontitis Using a Magnetic Nanoparticle Biosensor

Periodontitis is a chronic disease which affects at least 10% of the population. If untreated, periodontitis can lead to teeth loss. Unfortunately, current diagnostic tests are limited in their sensitivity and specificity. In this study, a novel multiplex hand-held colorimetric diagnostic biosensor, using two typical inflammatory salivary biomarkers, Human Neutrophil Elastase (HNE) and Cathepsin-G, was constructed as proof of concept to potentially detect periodontitis. The biosensing method was based on the measurement of proteolytic activity using specific proteases probes. These probes consist of specific proteases substrates covalently bound to a magnetic bead from one end and to the gold sensor surface by the other end. When intact, this renders the golden sensor black. Upon proteolysis, the cleaved magnetic beads will be attracted by an external magnet revealing the golden color of the sensor surface observable by the naked eye. The biosensor was capable of specific and quantitative detection of HNE and Cathepsin-G in solution and in spiked saliva samples with a lower detection limit of 1 pg/mL and 100 fg/mL for HNE and Cathepsin-G, respectively. Examination of periodontitis patients' sample and a healthy control showed the potential of the multiplex biosensor to detect the presence of HNE and Cathepsin-G activity in situ. This approach is anticipated to be a useful biochip array amenable to low-cost point-of-care devices.

Possible evidence of systemic lupus erythematosus and periodontal disease association mediated by Toll-like receptors 2 and 4

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) participate in the innate immune response and trigger the immune responses of the body. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease of unknown aetiology, characterized by an excessive autoimmune response in the body affecting the connective tissues. The disease is possibly triggered by both environmental aetiological factors and pathological organic processes such as exposure to sunlight, chronic infectious processes and genetic factors. Conversely, periodontal disease is an infectious disease caused by microorganisms in the oral cavity, resulting in a chronic inflammatory process which continuously stimulates the immune response, thus causing damage to the periodontal tissues. The expression of both TLR-2 and TLR-4 receptors are increased in both SLE and periodontal disease. Periodontitis might trigger excessive activation of immune response occurring in SLE by maintaining a high expression of TLRs, leading in turn to the acceleration of the onset and progression of autoimmune reactions. In addition, periodontal treatment is able to reduce the expression of these receptors and therefore the symptoms of SLE. Here we discuss the possible interaction between SLE and periodontitis, and suggest further studies evaluating common features in both factors that could explored, due to morbidity and mortality of SLE and the high incidence of periodontal infections around the world.

Salivary metabolomics in the diagnosis of oral cancer and periodontal diseases

Metabolomics is a systemic study of metabolites, which are small molecules generated by the process of metabolism. The metabolic profile of saliva can provide an early outlook of the changes associated with a wide range of diseases, including oral cancer and periodontal diseases. It is possible to measure levels of disease-specific metabolites using different methods as presented in this study. However, many challenges exist including incomplete understanding of the complicated metabolic pathways of different oral diseases. The review concludes with the discussion on future perspectives of salivary metabolomics from a clinician point of view. Salivary metabolomics may afford a new research avenue to identify local and systemic disorders but also to aid in the design and modification of therapies. A MEDLINE search using keywords "salivary metabolomics" returned 23 results in total, of which seven were omitted for being reviews or letters to the editor. The rest of the articles were used for preparation of the review, 13 of these were published in the last 5 years.

YKL-40 level in gingival crevicular fluid from patients with periodontitis and type 2 diabetes

OBJECTIVE

YKL-40 is a chitin-binding glycoprotein, the level of which increases in inflammatory diseases, diabetes mellitus (DM), cardiovascular diseases, and tumors. Gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) contains many proteins and markers of periodontitis. The purpose of this study was to investigate YKL-40 level in GCF from patients with periodontitis and DM and the association between YKL-40 level and chronic periodontitis (CP) or DM.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The subjects were 121 patients with DM, CP, DM and periodontitis (DM-P), and healthy subjects (H). GCF was collected using paper strips after the sites for GCF collection were clinically evaluated for probing depth (PD), gingival index (GI), and bleeding on probing (BOP). YKL-40 in GCF was identified by Western blotting, and its level was determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

YKL-40 was contained in GCF samples from H, DM, CP, and DM-P sites, and its levels (amount and concentration) in CP and DM-P were significantly higher than those in H and DM. GCF YKL-40 level significantly correlated with PD and GI, and its level in BOP-positive sites was significantly higher than that in BOP-negative ones.

CONCLUSIONS

GCF YKL-40 level was elevated in periodontitis, but not DM. YKL-40 in GCF may be an inflammatory marker for periodontitis.

Effect of Non-surgical Periodontal Therapy on Serum and Salivary Concentrations of Visfatin in Patients with Chronic Periodontitis

Background and aims. Visfatin, mainly secreted by visceral adipose tissue, especially by macrophages, plays an important role in regulating the defense and immune functions, and functions as a growth factor, a cytokine, an enzyme and more importantly as a proinflammatory mediator. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment on serum and salivary levels of visfatin in patients with generalized moderate-to-severe chronic periodontitis. Materials and methods. Eighteen patients with generalized moderate-to-severe chronic periodontitis were selected based on periodontal parameters of gingival index (GI), probing pocket depth (PPD), clinical attachment level (CAL) and radiographic parameters. Serum and salivary samples were collected at baseline and one month following non-surgical periodontal therapy (scaling and root planing ([SRP]). Visfatin levels were measured using an ELISA kit. Data were analyzed by SPSS 15, using paired t-test and Pearson's correlation coefficient. Results. Mean salivary and serum levels of visfatin significantly decreased after non-surgical periodontal treatment (P<0.05). Changes in salivary visfatin levels were more prominent. Conclusion. According to the findings of this study it seems that there is a direct relationship between periodontal tissue inflammation and disease activity with salivary and serum visfatin levels.

The landscape of protein biomarkers proposed for periodontal disease: markers with functional meaning

Periodontal disease (PD) is characterized by a deregulated inflammatory response which fails to resolve, activating bone resorption. The identification of the proteomes associated with PD has fuelled biomarker proposals; nevertheless, many questions remain. Biomarker selection should favour molecules representing an event which occurs throughout the disease progress. The analysis of proteome results and the information available for each protein, including its functional role, was accomplished using the OralOme database. The integrated analysis of this information ascertains if the suggested proteins reflect the cell and/or molecular mechanisms underlying the different forms of periodontal disease. The evaluation of the proteins present/absent or with very different concentrations in the proteome of each disease state was used for the identification of the mechanisms shared by different PD variants or specific to such state. The information presented is relevant for the adequate design of biomarker panels for PD. Furthermore, it will open new perspectives and help envisage future studies targeted to unveil the functional role of specific proteins and help clarify the deregulation process in the PD inflammatory response.

To estimate salivary aspartate aminotransferase levels in chronic gingivitis and chronic periodontitis patients prior to and following non-surgical periodontal therapy: A clinico-biochemical study

Context:

Saliva can be used as a diagnostic fluid in dentistry. Various enzymes have been proposed as markers for periodontal destruction. One of them is aspartate aminotransferase, for which salivary analysis can offer a cost-effective approach for monitoring the disease. Changes in enzymatic activity reflect metabolic changes in the gingiva and periodontium in inflammation.

Aims:

The purpose of this study was to assess the aspartate aminotransferase levels in saliva prior to and following scaling and root planning (SRP) at 1 month and 3 month interval and correlating it with the clinical parameters in generalized chronic gingivitis and chronic periodontitis patients.

Materials and Methods:

Thirty patients with generalized chronic gingivitis and 30 with generalized chronic periodontitis were selected. The activity of aspartate aminotransferase levels in saliva were assessed biochemically before and after SRP at 1 month and 3 months. The aspartate aminotransferase levels were correlated with clinical parameters (gingival index and probing depth).

Statistical Analysis Used:

A paired t test was done.

Results:

A decrease in gingival index, probing depth, and aspartate aminotransferase levels were seen in both the groups at 1 and 3 months which was found to be statistically highly significant (P value 0.00). Aspartate aminotransferase levels were statistically significantly correlated with the clinical parameters at baseline (P < 0.05) but at 3 months, a positive correlation was seen in both the groups which was statistically insignificant (P > 0.05).

Conclusions:

Elevated salivary aspartate aminotransferase levels were seen in generalized chronic gingivitis and chronic periodontitis patients, with higher values recorded in generalized chronic periodontitis correlating to the tissue destruction taking place in these conditions.

Impact of iron deficiency anemia on chronic periodontitis and superoxide dismutase activity: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

Both chronic periodontitis (CP) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) induce oxidative stress in the body and cause an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD). This study explored the SOD enzyme activity of saliva and serum in CP patients with and without IDA and analyzed the impact of IDA on CP.

METHODS

A total of 82 patients were divided into four groups: control group (CG, 22), periodontally healthy IDA patients (IDA-PH, 20), CP patients (CP, 20), and IDA patients with CP (IDA-CP, 20). After clinical measurements and samplings, serum and salivary SOD levels were determined using an SOD assay kit.

RESULTS

IDA-CP patients exhibited a higher gingival index, bleeding on probing, probing pocket depth, and percentage (%) of sites with a clinical attachment loss (CAL) of ≥6 mm (P<0.008) than CP patients. The mean salivary and serum SOD levels were significantly lower in the IDA-PH, CP, and IDA-CP patients than in the CG group (P<0.008). A significant positive correlation between salivary and serum SOD activity was observed in IDA (P<0.05). Furthermore, serum and salivary SOD levels were significantly and negatively correlated with all periodontal parameters including the percentage of sites with CAL of 4-5 and ≥6 mm (P<0.05) except the significant correlation between salivary SOD activity and mean CAL and the percentage of sites with CAL of 4-5 mm (P>0.05) in these patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Within the limits of this study, it may be suggested that IDA patients with chronic periodontitis have more periodontal breakdowns than patients with chronic periodontitis. Serum and salivary SOD activity levels were lower in the IDA-PH, CP and IDA-CP groups than in the CG. Iron deficiency anemia influenced the serum SOD activity but did not seem to affect the salivary SOD activity in these patients.

Human saliva proteome analysis and disease biomarker discovery

Human saliva is an attractive body fluid for disease diagnosis and prognosis because saliva testing is simple, safe, low-cost and noninvasive. Comprehensive analysis and identification of the proteomic content in human whole and ductal saliva will not only contribute to the understanding of oral health and disease pathogenesis, but also form a foundation for the discovery of saliva protein biomarkers for human disease detection. In this article, we have summarized the proteomic technologies for comprehensive identification of proteins in human whole and ductal saliva. We have also discussed potential quantitative proteomic approaches to the discovery of saliva protein biomarkers for human oral and systemic diseases. With the fast development of mass spectrometry and proteomic technologies, we are enthusiastic that saliva protein biomarkers will be developed for clinical diagnosis and prognosis of human diseases in the future.

Oral diagnostics: an integral component to geriatric health care

Aging is inevitable, every day we live we age. The mouth is referred to as a mirror of overall health, reinforcing that oral health is an integral part of general health. Oral health reflects overall well being for the elderly population. Compromised oral health may be a risk factor for systemic diseases commonly occurring in age. Diagnosis and proper treatment is essential for healthy aging. Timely diagnosis, appropriate treatment and regular follow-up of both oral and systemic diseases are a prerequisite for active aging. Oral diagnostics is a revolutionary development with high potential to replace other investigative modalities. Changing demographics, including the increase in life expectancy and the growing numbers of elderly, has focused attention on the need for dental research activities to be expanded for geriatric dentistry. This paper is aimed to shed light on the growing elderly population and their ailments. It also aims to create awareness among health care providers about oral diagnostics and their application in geriatrics.

The salivary β-HEX A% index as an excellent marker of periodontitis in smoking alcohol-dependent persons

Background. Severe periodontitis leading to tooth loss is found in 5–15% of most populations worldwide. Aim. The applicability of salivary β-hexosaminidase (β-HEX A%, percentage of β-HEX A isoenzyme to total β-HEX) and β-HEX B% (β-HEX B/β-HEX) indexes was investigated as a possible marker of periodontitis. Methods. Thirty three alcohol-dependent smokers (AS) and 32 healthy controls (C) were enrolled in the study. The activity of β-HEX was measured spectrophotometrically. Results. β-HEX A% was significantly higher and β-HEX B% was lower in AS than in C group. We found a significant correlation between β-HEX A% and gingival index (GI) and an inverse correlation between β-HEX A% and salivary flow (SF), in all groups. Salivary β-HEX A% index in smoking alcoholics at 0.23 had excellent sensitivity (96%) and specificity (91%); the AUC for β-HEX A% was high (0.937). There were no correlations between amount/duration-time of alcohol drinking/smoking and β-HEX A% or β-HEX B%. We found significant correlations between the time period of denture wearing and GI, papilla bleeding index (PBI), and decayed missing filled teeth index (DMFT) and between GI and the amount of smoked cigarettes per day. Conclusion. Bad periodontal state was most likely due to the nicotine dependence. Salivary β-HEX A% is a promising excellent marker for the diagnosis of periodontitis.

Levels of Immunoglobulin A1 in Peri-Implant Fluid and Saliva from Patients with Mucositis: A Preliminary Study

There are no studies evaluating the possible use of immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1) as an early marker for peri-implant inflammation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the IgA1 levels in peri-implant sulcular fluid (PISF) and saliva of partially edentulous patients as an indicator of mucositis. Twenty-seven patients were examined to determine the peri-implant status based on probing depth and bleeding on probing. Saliva and PISF around dental implants were collected and the IgA1 levels were evaluated by Elisa assay. IgA1 in saliva and PISF of these patients were compared and their correlations with clinical parameters were evaluated. Differences in IgA1 levels in saliva (821.1 ± 290.6; 779.8 ± 401.5) and PISF (26.6 ± 20.7; 25.1 ± 20.5) of healthy and mucositis groups, respectively were not observed (p>0.05). Correlation between clinical parameters and IgA1 in saliva or PISF was not observed in healthy or mucositis groups (p=0.607; p=0.826, respectively). These results suggest that IgA1 cannot be used as an immunological marker of mucositis.

Salivary enzymes as diagnostic markers for detection of gingival/periodontal disease and their correlation with the severity of the disease

Context:

Host responses to periodontal disease include the production of different enzymes released by stromal, epithelial or inflammatory cells. Important enzymes associated with cell injury and cell death are aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase (AST, ALT), alkaline phosphatase, acidic phosphatase (ALP, ACP), and gama glutamyl transferase (GGT). Changes in enzymatic activity reflect metabolic changes in the gingiva and periodontium, in the inflammation.

Aims:

In this article we examined the activity of AST, ALT, GGT, ALP, and ACP in the saliva from patients with periodontal disease, before and after periodontal treatment (experimental group — 20 gingivitis patients and 20 periodontitis patients), and in the saliva from healthy subjects (control group — 20 samples).

Settings and Design:

Periodontal disease was determined based on the clinical parameters (gingival index (GI), probing depth (PD), and clinical attachment loss (CAL)). Patients with periodontal disease were under conventional periodontal treatment.

Materials and Methods:

The stimulated saliva of the patient was collected in a sterile test tube and analyzed using the Automatic Analyzer.

Results:

The obtained results showed statistically significant increased activity of AST, ALT, GGT, ALP, and ACP in the saliva from patients with periodontal disease, in relation to the control group. A significant reduction in the enzyme levels was seen after conventional periodontal therapy.

Conclusions:

Based on these results, it can be assumed that the salivary enzymes (AST, ALT, GGT, ALP, and ACP) can be considered as biochemical markers for evaluating the diagnosis and prognosis of the functional condition of periodontal tissues in disease and health, and in the evaluation of the therapy effects in periodontal disease.

Would Nitric Oxide be an Effective Marker for Earlier Stages of Peri-Implant Disease? An Analysis in Human Peri-Implant Sulcular Fluid

Nitric oxide has an important effect on host immune response. However, little has been studied in relation to its potential as a possible diagnostic tool in peri-implant disease. The present study analyzed nitrite levels in the peri-implant sulcular fluid (PISF) of implants with mucositis and the correlation of these nitrite levels with clinical parameters using a simplified fluid collection methodology. Twenty-five partially edentulous patients showing peri-implant mucositis were evaluated, and the peri-implant status was determined based on current clinical parameters: probing depth (PD) and bleeding on probing (BOP). The sulcular fluid (SF) around teeth (control) and implants were collected, and the nitrite levels were evaluated using the Griess method. The mean probing depth (mm) was significantly higher (P &lt; .0001) in implants (2.852 ± 0.6484) than in control teeth (1.585 ± 0.3636). The mean total nitrite level (μM) was statistically higher (P = .0069) in implants with mucositis (14.34 ± 11.83) than in control teeth (9.316 ± 5.534). No correlation was observed between the total nitrite levels and the PD mean in the control group (P = .2558, r = −0.2361) or in the implant group (P = .1160, r = −0.3224), as well as the number of faces showing bleeding on probing (P = .8747, r = 0.0332). These results demonstrated that the nitrite levels were higher in inflamed areas. According to the methodology applied and results obtained, the higher nitrite levels in inflamed areas suggest that, in the future, nitrite could be used as a marker of peri-implant mucositis associated with clinical data to monitor the cure or evolution of the disease.

Protective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract on ligature-induced periodontitis in rats

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the systemic administration of extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb) would prevent excessive tissue destruction in ligature-induced periodontitis in a rat model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-two male Wistar albino rats were used in the current study. The rats were randomly divided into four groups of eight rats each: (1) non-ligated treatment (NL) group, (2) ligature-only (LO) group, (3) ligature plus GB28 (28 mg/kg, daily for 11 days) group and (4) ligature plus GB56 (56 mg/kg, daily for 11 days) group.

RESULTS

Measurement of alveolar bone loss in the mandibular molar tooth revealed significantly lower bone loss values in the LO group compared to groups NL, GB28 and GB56 (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The present results are the first data which suggests that host response in periodontitis can be modified by EGb administration. EGb minimized progression of periodontal disease.