Recent advances in delivery of photosensitive metal-based drugs

β-Cyclodextrin Encapsulated Platinum(II)-Based Nanoparticles: Photodynamic Therapy and Inhibition of the NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Glioblastoma

This study explores cell death through photodynamic therapy (PDT) with β-cyclodextrin-encapsulated platinum(II)-based nanoparticles (Pt-NPs) and the effect on the NF-κB and stress pathways in glioblastoma. The encapsulation of the cyclometalated Pt(II) complex Pt(LL') within β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) enhances its biocompatibility, improves cellular penetration, and boosts emission, thereby increasing the effectiveness of PDT. Both Pt(LL') and Pt-NPs show minimal toxicity in the dark; however, Pt-NPs significantly increase toxicity toward glioblastoma Kr158 cells upon irradiation at 390 nm. The PDT-induced cell death is further validated through apoptosis assays and the modulation of some key survival pathways like NF-κB/p65, DJ-1, and ERp29. This is the first report of β-cyclodextrin-encapsulated platinum(II)-based nanoparticles designed to target glioblastoma cells through PDT, offering a promising strategy for enhancing therapeutic efficacy.

Challenging and new opportunities for prodrug technology

Research on prodrug technology has opened new avenues for site-directed chemotherapy rather than systemic chemotherapy. This distinctive strategy allows drug delivery to be activated by light-, irradiation-, or ultrasound (US)-tunable chemistries, which have been termed photopharmacology, radiopharmacology, and sonopharmacology, respectively. Prodrugs have emerged as a main strategy for improving pharmacokinetics, reducing side effects, and thus enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. This review summarizes stimuli-responsive drug release systems and the latest progress in exogenous stimuli-responsive prodrug activation, e.g., light, irradiation, and US, with a focus on the activation of small molecule prodrugs, antibody‒drug conjugates, and prodrug nanosystems. In addition, challenges encountered by Pt drugs and Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics are summarized and discussed. Moreover, this review presents the current state of precise treatment and discusses the opportunities and challenges for the clinical translation of these strategies.

Engineered cyanobacteria-Fe3O4 hybrid system as oxygen generator and photosensitizer production factory for synergistic cancer PDT-immunotherapy

The combination of photodynamic therapy (PDT)-immunotherapy has brought much hope for cancer patients. However, the hypoxia tumor microenvironment (TME) can regulate tumor angiogenesis and inhibit immune response, thus limiting the therapeutic effects. In this paper, engineered cyanobacteria-M2-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) targeting peptide modified Fe3O4 nanoparticles hybrid system (ECyano@Fe3O4-M2pep) was constructed for alleviating hypoxia and relieving immune suppression to achieve synergistic cancer PDT-immunotherapy. With the irradiation of red laser, oxygen was produced by the photosynthesis of ECyano to alleviate the hypoxia TME. Then, ECyano could secret 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) under the induction of theophylline for controllable PDT. In the process of PDT, the disulfide bond between ECyano and Fe3O4-M2pep was broken in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS), and then Fe3O4-M2pep was released to target M2-like TAMs, corresponding by the polarization of M2-like TAMs to M1-like TAMs for the killing of tumor cells. Compared with other groups, ECyano@Fe3O4-M2pep + theophylline + laser (ECyano@Fe3O4-M2pep + T + L) group displayed the lowest tumor volume (159.3 mm3) and the highest M1/M2 ratio (1.25- fold). We believe that this hybrid system will offer a promising way for the biomedical application of bacterial therapy.

Stabilization versus competing de-metalation, trans-metalation and (cyclo)-dehydrogenation of Pd porphyrins at a copper surface

Metal-porphyrins are studied intensively due their potential applications, deriving from the variety of electronic and chemical properties, tunable by selecting metal centers and functional groups. Metalation, de- and trans-metalation processes are fundamental in this sense to investigate both the synthesis and the stability of these molecular building blocks. More specifically, Pd coordination in tetrapyrroles revealed to be potentially interesting in the fields of cancer therapy, drug delivery and light harvesting. Thus, we focused on the stability of palladium tetraphenyl porphyrins (PdTPPs) on a copper surface by means of combined spectroscopy and microscopy approaches. We find that PdTPPs undergo coverage-dependent trans-metalation accompanied by steric rearrangements already at room temperature, and fully trans-metalate to CuTPPs upon mild annealing. Side reactions such as (cyclo)-dehydrogenation and structural reorganization affect the molecular layer, with Pd-Cu alloying and segregation occurring at higher temperature. Instead, oxygen passivation of the Cu support prevents the metal-involving reactions, thus preserving the layer and increasing the chemical and temperature stability of the Pd porphyrins.

Revealing the Mutually Enhanced Mechanism of Necroptosis and Immunotherapy Induced by Defect Engineering and Piezoelectric Effect

Owing to low immunogenicity-induced immune escape and short-term circulating immune responses, the efficiency of immunotherapy is unsatisfactory. Therefore, triggering immunogenic cell death and establishing a long-term, mutually reinforced treatment modality are urgent challenges. In this study, ultrathin CaBi2 Nb2 O9 nanosheets with tunable oxygen vacancies (abbreviated as CBNO-OV1) are prepared for synergistic necroptosis and immunotherapy. The optimized vacancy concentration significantly improves the piezoelectric effect under ultrasound irradiation, thereby considerably improving the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Density functional theory shows that oxygen vacancies can improve the efficiency of electron hole separation by suppressing their recombination, thus resulting in enhanced piezocatalytic activity. Moreover, the piezoelectric effect improves the permeability of tumor cell membranes, thus resulting in Ca2+ influx. Additionally, CBNO-OV1 also releases a portion of Ca2+ , which induces necroptosis assisted by explosive ROS. Ribonucleic acid transcription tests suggest the mechanisms associated with immune response activation and necroptosis. More importantly, necroptosis can trigger a significant immune response in vivo, thus activating macrophage M1 polarization through the NF-kappa B pathway and promoting T-cell differentiation.Tumor Necrosis Factor-α differentiated from macrophages conversely promotes necroptosis, thus realizing a mutually enhanced effect. This study demonstrates the feasibility of mutually reinforced necroptosis and immunotherapy for amplifying tumor efficacy.

Pyrene Appendant Triazole-based Chemosensors for Sensing Applications

Over the last two decades, the design and development of fluorescent chemosensors for the targeted detection of Heavy Transition-metal (HTM) ions, anions, and biological analytes, have drawn much interest. Since the introduction of click chemistry in 2001, triazole moieties have become an increasingly prominent theme in chemosensors. Triazoles generated via click reactions are crucial for sensing various ions and biological analytes. Recently, the number of studies in the field of pyrene appendant triazole moieties has risen dramatically, with more sophisticated and reliable triazole-containing chemosensors for various analytes of interest described. This tutorial review provides a general overview of pyrene appendant-triazole-based chemosensors that can detect a variety of metal cations, anions, and neutral analytes by using modular click-derived triazoles.

Density Functional Theory-Guided Photo-Triggered Anticancer Activity of Curcumin-Based Zinc(II) Complexes

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has evolved as a new therapeutic modality for cancer treatment with fewer side effects and drug resistance. Curcumin exhibits PDT activity, but its low bioavailability restricts its clinical application. Here, the bioavailability of curcumin was increased by its complex formation with the Zn(II) center. For a structure-activity relationship study, Zn(II)-based complexes (1-3) comprising N^N-based ligands (2,2'-bipyridine in 1 and 2 or 1,10-phenanthroline in 3) and O^O-based ligands (acetylacetone in 1, monoanionic curcumin in 2 and 3) were synthesized and thoroughly characterized. The X-ray structure of the control complex, 1, indicated a square pyramidal shape of the molecules. Photophysical and TD-DFT studies indicated the potential of 2 and 3 as good visible light type-II photosensitizers for PDT. Guided by the TD-DFT studies, the low-energy visible light-triggered singlet oxygen (1O2) generation efficacy of 2 and 3 was explored in solution and in cancer cells. As predicted by the TD-DFT calculations, these complexes produced 1O2 efficiently in the cytosol of MCF-7 cancer cells and ultimately displayed excellent apoptotic anticancer activity in the presence of light. Moreover, the molecular docking investigation showed that complexes 2 and 3 have very good binding affinities with caspase-9 and p-53 proteins and could activate them for cellular apoptosis. Further molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of 3 in the caspase-9 protein binding site.

Antibody-Mediated Nanodrug of Proteasome Inhibitor Carfilzomib Boosts the Treatment of Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is the second most common hematological malignancy. For relapsed and refractory MM, a proteasome inhibitor, carfilzomib (CFZ), has become one of the few clinical options. CFZ suffers, nevertheless, metabolic instability and poor bioavailability and may induce severe cardiovascular and renal adverse events. Here, we report that daratumumab (Dar)-decorated polypeptide micelles (Dar-PMs) mediate the targeted delivery of CFZ to CD38-positive MM, effectively boosting its anti-MM efficacy. CFZ-loaded Dar-PMs (Dar-PMs-CFZ) exhibited an average diameter of ca. 80 nm and Dar density-dependent cell endocytosis and anti-MM activity, in which over 6-fold greater inhibitory effect to LP-1 and MM.1S MM cells than nontargeted PMs-CFZ control was achieved at a Dar density of 3.2 (Dar3.2-PMs-CFZ). Interestingly, Dar3.2-PMs-CFZ markedly enhanced the growth inhibition of orthotopic LP-1 MM in mice and significantly extended the median survival time compared with PMs-CFZ and free CFZ (95 days vs 60 and 54 days, respectively). In line with its high MM targetability and anti-MM efficacy, Dar3.2-PMs-CFZ revealed little toxic effects and effectively prevented osteolytic lesions. The antibody-targeted nanodelivery of a proteasome inhibitor appears to be an appealing strategy to treat multiple myeloma.

Recent Advances of Platinum-Based Anticancer Complexes in Combinational Multimodal Therapy

Platinum drugs with manifest therapeutic effects are widely used, but their systemic toxicity and the drug resistance acquired by cancer cells limit their clinical applications. Thus, the exploration on appropriate methods and strategies to overcome the limitations of traditional platinum drugs becomes extremely necessary. Combination therapy of platinum drugs can inhibit tumor growth and metastasis in an additive or synergistic manner, and can potentially reduce the systemic toxicity of platinum drugs and overcome platinum-resistance. This review summarizes the various modalities and current progress in platinum-based combination therapy. The synthetic strategies and therapeutic effects of some platinum-based anticancer complexes in the combination of platinum drugs with gene editing, ROS-based therapy, thermal therapy, immunotherapy, biological modelling, photoactivation, supramolecular self-assembly and imaging modality are briefly described. Their potential challenges and prospects are also discussed. It is hoped that this review will inspire researchers to have more ideas for the future development of highly effective platinum-based anti-cancer complexes.

Stimuli-responsive nanocarrier delivery systems for Pt-based antitumor complexes: a review

Platinum-based anticancer drugs play a crucial role in the clinical treatment of various cancers. However, the application of platinum-based drugs is heavily restricted by their severe toxicity and drug resistance/cross resistance. Various drug delivery systems have been developed to overcome these limitations of platinum-based chemotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanocarrier drug delivery systems as one of the most promising strategies attract more attention. And huge progress in stimuli-responsive nanocarrier delivery systems of platinum-based drugs has been made. In these systems, a variety of triggers including endogenous and extracorporeal stimuli have been employed. Endogenous stimuli mainly include pH-, thermo-, enzyme- and redox-responsive nanocarriers. Extracorporeal stimuli include light-, magnetic field- and ultrasound responsive nanocarriers. In this review, we present the recent advances in stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems with different nanocarriers for improving the efficacy and reducing the side effects of platinum-based anticancer drugs.

Stimuli-Responsive Gene Delivery Nanocarriers for Cancer Therapy

Gene therapy provides a promising approach in treating cancers with high efficacy and selectivity and few adverse effects. Currently, the development of functional vectors with safety and effectiveness is the intense focus for improving the delivery of nucleic acid drugs for gene therapy. For this purpose, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers displayed strong potential in improving the overall efficiencies of gene therapy and reducing adverse effects via effective protection, prolonged blood circulation, specific tumor accumulation, and controlled release profile of nucleic acid drugs. Besides, synergistic therapy could be achieved when combined with other therapeutic regimens. This review summarizes recent advances in various stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for gene delivery. Particularly, the nanocarriers responding to endogenous stimuli including pH, reactive oxygen species, glutathione, and enzyme, etc., and exogenous stimuli including light, thermo, ultrasound, magnetic field, etc., are introduced. Finally, the future challenges and prospects of stimuli-responsive gene delivery nanocarriers toward potential clinical translation are well discussed. The major objective of this review is to present the biomedical potential of stimuli-responsive gene delivery nanocarriers for cancer therapy and provide guidance for developing novel nanoplatforms that are clinically applicable.

Polysaccharide-based hydrogel with photothermal effect for accelerating wound healing

Polysaccharide-based hydrogel has excellent biochemical function, abundant sources, good biocompatibility and other advantages, and has a broad application prospect in biomedical fields, especially in the field of wound healing. With its inherent high specificity and low invasive burden, photothermal therapy has shown great application prospect in preventing wound infection and promoting wound healing. Combining polysaccharide-based hydrogel with photothermal therapy (PTT), multifunctional hydrogel with photothermal, bactericidal, anti-inflammatory and tissue regeneration functions can be designed, so as to achieve better therapeutic effect. This review first focuses on the basic principles of hydrogel and PTT, and the types of polysaccharides that can be used to design hydrogels. In addition, according to the different materials that produce photothermal effects, the design considerations of several representative polysaccharide-based hydrogels are emphatically introduced. Finally, the challenges faced by polysaccharide-based hydrogels with photothermal properties are discussed, and the future prospects of this field are put forward.

Drug Self-Delivery Systems: Molecule Design, Construction Strategy, and Biological Application

Drug self-delivery systems (DSDSs) offer new ways to create novel drug delivery systems (DDSs). In typical DSDSs, therapeutic reagents are not considered passive cargos but active delivery agents of actionable targets. As an advanced drug delivery strategy, DSDSs with positive cooperativity of both free drugs and nanocarriers exhibit the clear merits of unprecedented drug-loading capacity, minimized systemic toxicity, and flexible preparation of nanoscale deliverables for passive targeted therapy. This review highlights the recent advances and future trends in DSDSs on the basis of two differently constructed structures: covalent and noncovalent bond-based DSDSs. Specifically, various chemical and architectural designs, fabrication strategies, and responsive and functional features are comprehensively discussed for these two types of DSDSs. In addition, additional comments on the current development status of DSDSs and the potential applications of their molecular designs are presented in the corresponding discussion. Finally, the promising potential of DSDSs in biological applications is revealed and the relationship between preliminary molecular design of DSDSs and therapeutic effects of subsequent DSDSs biological applications is clarified.

Hierarchical Microparticles Delivering Oxaliplatin and NLG919 Nanoprodrugs for Local Chemo-immunotherapy

Chemo-immunotherapy shows promising antitumor therapeutic outcomes for many primary cancers. Research in this area has been focusing on developing an ideal formula that enables the potent efficacy of chemo-immunotherapy in combating various cancers with reduced systemic toxicity. Herein, we present novel hierarchical hydrogel microparticles (MDDP) delivering oxaliplatin and NLG919 nanoprodrugs for local chemo-immunotherapy with desired features. The oxaliplatin prodrug and NLG919 were efficiently loaded in the dual-drug polymeric nanoparticles (DDP NPs), which were further encapsulated into a MDDP by using microfluidic technology. When delivered to the tumor site, the DDP NPs will be sustainedly released from the MDDP and retained locally to reduce systemic toxicity. After being endocytosed by cancer cells, the cytotoxic oxaliplatin and NLG919 could be successfully triggered to release from DDP NPs in a chain-shattering manner, leading to the immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells and the suppression of intratumoral immunosuppressive Tregs, respectively. With the assistance of an immune modulator, the chemotherapeutics-induced ICD could trigger robust systemic antitumor immune responses, presenting superior synergistic antitumor efficacies. Thus, the hierarchical microparticles could substantially inhibit the growth of mouse subcutaneous colorectal tumors, breast tumors, and colorectal tumors with large initial sizes via synergized chemo-immunotherapy, showing great potential in the practical clinical application of oncotherapy.

A novel heterometallic ruthenium-silver complex as potential antitumor agent: Studies on its synthesis, in vitro assays and interactions with biomolecular targets

Certain ruthenium compounds are found to be potent growth inhibitors for cancer cells. In the current study, a novel ruthenium-triphenylphosphine (PPh₃) cation and silver-2-mercapto nicotinate acid (H₂mna) anion complex (RSC) was synthesized, and its molecular structure was determined by IR, NMR and X-ray crystallography. Biological assays revealed that RSC strongly inhibited the viability of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with IC₅₀ values of 9.6±1.1 and 7.5±0.8 µM, respectively, and significantly blocked their migration rates. Ultraviolet spectroscopy and fluorescence emission experiments demonstrated that RSC interacted with BSA, but not DNA. Further studies on [Ag₆(Hmna)₂(mna)₄]^4- binding with BSA and DNA found the anion did not interact with these biomolecules, indicating that RSC exerted its biological functions through its ruthenium-PPh₃ complex (RTC) moiety, and molecular docking provided additional evidence supporting this result. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer showed that the number of binding sites (n) and binding constant of RTC-BSA complex were 1 and 8.60 × 10⁴ M^-1 at 310K, suggesting a strong interaction between RTC and BSA. The thermodynamic parameters ΔG⁰, ΔH⁰ and ΔS⁰ of the binding were calculated, and it was demonstrated that the binding of RTC with BSA was enthalpy-driven, and the main forces between RTC and BSA were electrostatic force and hydrogen bonding. Molecular docking showed that the binding site of BSA with RSC was located on the interface between the domains IIA and IIB of the protein. The present study sheds light on that a ruthenium mono-coordinated with PPh₃ complex could help to design and develop a new class of antitumor drugs.

Polymeric Nanosystems Applied for Metal-Based Drugs and Photosensitizers Delivery: The State of the Art and Recent Advancements

Nanotechnology-based approaches for targeting the delivery and controlled release of metal-based therapeutic agents have revealed significant potential as tools for enhancing the therapeutic effect of metal-based agents and minimizing their systemic toxicities. In this context, a series of polymer-based nanosized systems designed to physically load or covalently conjugate metal-based therapeutic agents have been remarkably improving their bioavailability and anticancer efficacy. Initially, the polymeric nanocarriers were applied for platinum-based chemotherapeutic agents resulting in some nanoformulations currently in clinical tests and even in medical applications. At present, these nanoassemblies have been slowly expanding for nonplatinum-containing metal-based chemotherapeutic agents. Interestingly, for metal-based photosensitizers (PS) applied in photodynamic therapy (PDT), especially for cancer treatment, strategies employing polymeric nanocarriers have been investigated for almost 30 years. In this review, we address the polymeric nanocarrier-assisted metal-based therapeutics agent delivery systems with a specific focus on non-platinum systems; we explore some biological and physicochemical aspects of the polymer–metallodrug assembly. Finally, we summarize some recent advances in polymeric nanosystems coupled with metal-based compounds that present potential for successful clinical applications as chemotherapeutic or photosensitizing agents. We hope this review can provide a fertile ground for the innovative design of polymeric nanosystems for targeting the delivery and controlled release of metal-containing therapeutic agents.

Chondroitin sulfate-based prodrug nanoparticles enhance photodynamic immunotherapy via Golgi apparatus targeting

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an emerging therapeutic approach that can inhibit tumor growth by destroying local tumors and activating systemic antitumor immune responses. However, PDT can be ineffective because of photosensitizer aggregation, tumor-induced dendritic cells (DC_S) dysfunction and PDT-mediated immunosuppression. Therefore, we designed chondroitin sulfate-based prodrug nanoparticles for the co-delivery of the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) and retinoic acid (RA), which can reduce PDT-mediated immunosuppression by disrupting the Golgi apparatus and blocking the production of immunosuppressive cytokines. Moreover, CpG oligodeoxynucleotide was combined as immunoadjuvant to promote the maturation of DCs. As expected, the strategy of Golgi apparatus targeting immunotherapy combined PDT was confirmed to relieve PDT-induced immunosuppression, showed excellent PDT antitumor efficacy in B16F10-subcutaneous bearing mice model. Thus, our finding offers a promising approach for photodynamic immunotherapy of advanced cancers. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Golgi apparatus has been shown to be a potential target of immunosuppression for producing several immunosuppressive cytokines. In this work, a Golgi apparatus-targeted prodrug nanoparticle was developed to enhance the immune response in photodynamic immunotherapy. The nanoparticle can target and disrupt the Golgi apparatus in tumor cells, which reduced PDT-mediated immunosuppression by blocking the production of immunosuppressive cytokines. This work provides an effective strategy of PDT in combination with the Golgi apparatus-targeted nanovesicle for enhanced cancer therapy.

Engineered extracellular vesicles as intelligent nanosystems for next-generation nanomedicine

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as natural carriers of bioactive cargo, have a unique micro/nanostructure, bioactive composition, and characteristic morphology, as well as fascinating physical, chemical and biochemical features, which have shown promising application in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. However, native EVs have limitations such as lack of or inefficient cell targeting, on-demand delivery, and therapeutic feedback. Recently, EVs have been engineered to contain an intelligent core, enabling them to (i) actively target sites of disease, (ii) respond to endogenous and/or exogenous signals, and (iii) provide treatment feedback for optimal function in the host. These advances pave the way for next-generation nanomedicine and offer promise for a revolution in drug delivery. Here, we summarise recent research on intelligent EVs and discuss the use of "intelligent core" based EV systems for the treatment of disease. We provide a critique about the construction and properties of intelligent EVs, and challenges in their commercialization. We compare the therapeutic potential of intelligent EVs to traditional nanomedicine and highlight key advantages for their clinical application. Collectively, this review aims to provide a new insight into the design of next-generation EV-based theranostic platforms for disease treatment.

Stimuli-Responsive Antibacterial Materials: Molecular Structures, Design Principles, and Biomedical Applications

Infections are regarded as the most severe complication associated with human health, which are urgent to be solved. Stimuli-responsive materials are appealing therapeutic platforms for antibacterial treatments, which provide great potential for accurate theranostics. In this review, the advantages, the response mechanisms, and the key design principles of stimuli-responsive antibacterial materials are highlighted. The biomedical applications, the current challenges, and future directions of stimuli-responsive antibacterial materials are also discussed. First, the categories of stimuli-responsive antibacterial materials are comprehensively itemized based on different sources of stimuli, including external physical environmental stimuli (e.g., temperature, light, electricity, salt, etc.) and bacterial metabolites stimuli (e.g., acid, enzyme, redox, etc.). Second, structural characteristics, design principles, and biomedical applications of the responsive materials are discussed, and the underlying interrelationships are revealed. The molecular structures and design principles are closely related to the sources of stimuli. Finally, the challenging issues of stimuli-responsive materials are proposed. This review will provide scientific guidance to promote the clinical applications of stimuli-responsive antibacterial materials.

Verteporfin-loaded supramolecular micelles for enhanced cisplatin-based chemotherapy via autophagy inhibition

Cisplatin (CDDP) is one of the most successful chemotherapeutic agents for cancer therapy. However, CDDP can activate pro-survival autophagy, which inhibits the therapeutic efficacy of CDDP. Herein, autophagy inhibitor verteporfin (VTPF) is integrated into CDDP-conjugated micelles to address this issue. The CDDP-conjugated micelles are prepared by host-guest interaction of zwitterionic poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine)-co-poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl adamantane-1-carboxylate) (P(MPC-co-MAd)) and CDDP conjugated β-cyclodextrin (CD-CDDP). VTPF is then physically encapsulated into the supramolecular micelles by hydrophobic interaction. Due to the zwitterionic corona of the supramolecular micelles, the micelles are stable in different media. CDDP and VTPF could be released in a reductive environment. CDDP-activated autophagy could be inhibited by VTPF, which is fully characterized by western blot, fluorescence imaging, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Moreover, the outstanding therapeutic efficacy of CDDP and VTPF co-loaded micelles is validated both in vitro and in vivo. This research not only provides a new strategy to fabricate CDDP delivery systems by supramolecular self-assembly, but also presents an innovative way to enhance cisplatin-based chemotherapy via autophagy inhibition.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Spectroscopic Studies of Bis-(meso-4-methoxyphenyl)-Benziporphyrin and Its Pd-Metal Complex

Benziporphyrin systems are widely explored, yet alternative improved synthetic routes towards these systems are needed. Here, a fairly and efficient synthesis of the free base and its metal complex is well designed. Dimethoxybenzene dicarbinol intermediate was prepared in excellent yields by reacting 4-methoxyphenylmagnesium bromide with isophthaladehyde in diethyl ether. Reaction with equivalent pyrrole and pentafluorobenzaldehyde in the presence of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), followed by oxidation with 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ), provided good yields of bis-(meso-4-methoxyphenyl)-benziporphyrin. Metalation of the free base was performed using palladium(II) acetate salt in acetonitrile. All intermediates and the final products are fully characterized using NMR, HMRS, and UV-Vis spectroscopies and briefly discussed.

Dual-sensitive dual-prodrug nanoparticles with light-controlled endo/lysosomal escape for synergistic photoactivated chemotherapy

The clinical application of conventional chemotherapeutic agents, represented by cisplatin, is limited by severe side effects. So, it is essential to explore more safer and controlled drug delivery systems for synergistic chemotherapy. In this work, we designed dual-sensitive dual-prodrug nanoparticles (DDNPs) for photoactivated platinum-based synergistic chemotherapy. With photosensitivity, DDNPs could be photoactivated from inert Pt(IV) to toxic Pt(II) under safe UVA light in a spatiotemporally controlled manner. Concurrently, mild could be generated from DDNPs to assist the endo/lysosomal escape of DDNPs for better photoactivated chemotherapy (PACT). Furthermore, with acid-sensitivity, demethylcantharidin (DMC), a protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) inhibitor, was released to block the DNA repair pathway and thereby could sensitize platinum-based chemotherapy in intracellular acidic microenvironments. Along with a precise ratio (Pt : DMC = 1 : 2), DDNPs had a powerful synergistic anti-cancer effect in vitro and in vivo. In the future, DDNPs have great potential as a safe and multifunctional drug delivery system for precise nanomedicine in clinical treatments.

Phototriggered Self-Adaptive Functionalized MOC-Based Drug Delivery Platform Promises High Antitumor Efficacy

Due to their great stability and special cavities, metal-organic cages (MOCs) are increasingly considered as promising nanocarriers for drug delivery. However, the size and surface dilemmas restrict their further biomedical applications. The ultrasmall size of MOCs facilitates tumor penetration but suffers from quick clearance and poor accumulation at the tumor site. Hydrophobicity of MOC surfaces improves internalization into tumor cells while causing low blood circulation time as well as poor biocompatibility. Therefore, it remains challenging for the MOC-based drug delivery nanoplatform to realize high therapeutic efficacy because it requires different or even opposite dimensions and surface characteristics in different steps of circulation, penetration, accumulation, and internalization processes. In this study, an unprecedented phototriggered self-adaptive platform (ZnPc@polySCage) is developed by integrating functionalized MOCs and a photodynamic therapy based reactive oxygen species responsive strategy to realize high-efficiency tumor-specific therapy. ZnPc@polySCage remains hydrophilic and stealthy during circulation, and retains its small original size for tumor penetration, while transforming to a larger size for effective accumulation and hydrophobic for enhanced internalization under laser irradiation in tumor tissue. With these essential transitions, ZnPc@polySCage demonstrates prominent antitumor effects. Overall, the work provides an advantageous strategy for functional MOC-based platforms and biomedical applications.

Reduction-Sensitive Fluorinated-Pt(IV) Universal Transfection Nanoplatform Facilitating CT45-Targeted CRISPR/dCas9 Activation for Synergistic and Individualized Treatment of Ovarian Cancer

Compared to traditional clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) system, CRISPR/dead Cas9 (dCas9) system can precisely regulate endogenous gene expression without damaging the host gene, representing a greater potential for cancer therapy. Cancer/testis antigen 45 (CT45) is proved to enhance platinum-based chemosensitivity for individualized ovarian cancer therapy. However, the development of a single nanocarrier codelivering CRISPR/dCas9 system and chemotherapeutics for synergistic cancer therapy still faces challenges. Herein, a reduction-sensitive fluorinated-Pt(IV) universal transfection nanoplatform (PtUTP-F) is developed for the CT45-targeted CRISPR/dCas9 activation to achieve synergistic and individualized treatment of ovarian cancer. Overcoming multiple physiological barriers, PtUTP-F condensed gene can efficiently transfect into different cells including 293T cells, A2780, SKOV3, A549, and A2780/cisplatin (DDP) cancer cells, which is superior to Lipofectamine 6000. With the responsive release of gene and Pt(II) in the intracellular reducing microenvironment, PtUTP-F/dCas9-CT45 can generate CRISPR/dCas9 activation of CT45 expression for protein phosphatase 4C (PP4C) activity inhibition to hinder the DNA repair pathway and thus enhances the sensitivity to Pt(II) drugs for individualized A2780 tumor therapy. The PtUTP-F not only represents a powerful nanoplatform for CRISPR/dCas9 system delivery but also initiates a novel strategy for synergistic and individualized treatment of CRISPR/dCas9-based gene therapy with chemotherapy.

Fenton Reaction Induced by Fe-Based Nanoparticles for Tumor Therapy

Fenton reaction, a typical inorganic reaction, is broadly utilized in the field of wastewater treatment. Recently In case of its ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells, it has been frequently reported in cancer treatment. Using the unique tumor microenvironment in cancer cells, many iron-based nanoparticles have been developed to release iron ions in cancer cells to induce Fenton reaction. In this mini review, we outline several different types of iron-based nanoparticles and several main means to enhance Fenton reaction in cancer cells. Finally, we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of iron-based nanoparticles for cancer therapy, prospected the future development of iron-based nanoparticles. It is believed that iron-based nanoparticles can make certain contribution to the cause of human cancer in the future.

Functional ultrasound-triggered phase-shift perfluorocarbon nanodroplets for cancer therapy

In recent years, because of their unique properties, the use of perfluorocarbon nanodroplets (PFC NDs) in ultrasound-mediated tumor theranostics has attracted increasing interest. PFC is one of the most stable organic compounds with high hydrophobicity. Phase-shift PFC NDs can be transformed into highly echogenic microbubbles for ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging by ultrasound and laser light. In addition, in the process of acoustic droplet vaporization, PFC NDs with cavitation nuclei can be combined with a variety of ultrasound technologies to produce cavitation effects for tumor ablation, antivascular therapy and release of therapeutic agents loaded in nanodroplets. Moreover, they can also be used to overcome tumor hypoxia by virtue of high oxygen solubility. In this review, first the preparation and stabilization of PFC NDs are summarized and then the issues and outlook are discussed. More importantly, multifunctional platforms based on PFC NDs for cancer diagnostics, therapy and theranostics are reviewed in detail.

A new near-infrared phosphorescent iridium(III) complex conjugated to a xanthene dye for mitochondria-targeted photodynamic therapy

Iridium(iii) complexes are potent candidates for photodynamic therapy (PDT), but some key drawbacks still hamper clinical translation, such as poor operability in the phototherapeutic window, high dark toxicity, and low reactive oxygen species (ROS) production efficiency. In this work, a near-infrared phosphorescent Ir(iii) complex conjugated to a xanthene dye, NIR-Ir-XE, is reported with highly favourable properties for mitochondria-targeted imaging and cancer phototherapy. The generation of the triplet excited state of a xanthene moiety endows the NIR-Ir-XE to form singlet oxygen (1O2) for use as a photodynamic therapy agent after irradiation with visible light. Compared with the xanthene-free Ir(iii) counterpart (NIR-Ir-bpy), the xanthene-modified cyclometalated Ir(iii) photosensitizer NIR-Ir-XE exhibits higher 1O2 generation efficiency, negligible dark toxicity and a better therapeutic effect. Importantly, a clear correlation between cell death and intracellular generation of 1O2 derived from NIR-Ir-XE after light irradiation was demonstrated. The corresponding in vivo photo-antitumor performance was further demonstrated to be effective in tumor-bearing mice. The observed properties of NIR-Ir-XE qualify it as a promising PDT agent.

Recent advances in bionanomaterials for liver cancer diagnosis and treatment

According to the World Health Organization, liver cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer associated with death worldwide. It demands effective treatment and diagnostic strategies to hinder its recurrence, complexities, aggressive metastasis and late diagnosis. With recent progress in nanotechnology, several nanoparticle-based diagnostic and therapeutic modalities have entered into clinical trials. With further developments in nanoparticle mediated liver cancer diagnosis and treatment, the approach holds promise for improved clinical liver cancer management. In this review, we discuss the key advances in nanoparticles that have potential for liver cancer diagnosis and treatment. We also discuss the potential of nanoparticles to overcome the limitations of existing therapeutic modalities.

Nanotechnology Assisted Chemotherapy for Targeted Cancer Treatment: Recent Advances and Clinical Perspectives

Nanotechnology has recently provided exciting platforms in the field of anticancer research with promising potentials for improving drug delivery efficacy and treatment outcomes. Nanoparticles (NPs) possess different advantages over the micro and bulk therapeutic agents, including their capability to carry high payloads of drugs, with prolonged half-life, reduced toxicity of the drugs, and increased targeting efficiency. The wide variety of nanovectors, coupled with different conjugation and encapsulation methods available for different theranostic agents provide promising opportunities to fine-tune the pharmacological properties of these agents for more effective cancer treatment methods. This review discusses applications of NPs-assisted chemotherapy in preclinical and clinical settings and recent advances in design and synthesis of different nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic agents. Moreover, physicochemical properties of different nanocarriers, their impacts on different tumor targeting strategies and effective parameters for efficient targeted drug delivery are discussed. Finally, the current approved NPs-assisted chemotherapeutic agents for clinical applications and under different phases of clinical trials are discussed.

Synergetic delivery of triptolide and Ce6 with light-activatable liposomes for efficient hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been known as the second common leading cancer worldwide, as it responds poorly to both chemotherapy and medication. Triptolide (TP), a diterpenoid triepoxide, is a promising treatment agent for its effective anticancer effect on multiple cancers including HCC. However, its clinical application has been limited owing to its severe systemic toxicities, low solubility, and fast elimination in the body. Therefore, to overcome the above obstacles, photo-activatable liposomes (LP) integrated with both photosensitizer Ce6 and chemotherapeutic drug TP (TP/Ce6-LP) was designed in the pursuit of controlled drug release and synergetic photodynamic therapy in HCC therapy. The TP encapsulated in liposomes accumulated to the tumor site due to the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Under laser irradiation, the photosensitizer Ce6 generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and further oxidized the unsaturated phospholipids. In this way, the liposomes were destroyed to release TP. TP/Ce6-LP with NIR laser irradiation (TP/Ce6-LP+L) showed the best anti-tumor effect both in vitro and in vivo on a patient derived tumor xenograft of HCC (PDXHCC). TP/Ce6-LP significantly reduced the side effects of TP. Furthermore, TP/Ce6-LP+L induced apoptosis through a caspase-3/PARP signaling pathway. Overall, TP/Ce6-LP+L is a novel potential treatment option in halting HCC progression with attenuated toxicity.

Photoresponsive metallopolymer nanoparticles for cancer theranostics

Over the past decades, transition metal complexes have been successfully used in anticancer phototherapies. They have shown promising properties in many different areas including photo-induced ligand exchange or release, rich excited state behavior, and versatile biochemical properties. When encorporated into polymeric frameworks and become part of nanostructures, photoresponsive metallopolymer nanoparticles (MPNs) show enhanced water solubility, extended blood circulation and increased tumor-specific accumulation, which greatly improves the tumor therapeutic effects compared to low-molecule-weight metal complexes. In this review, we aim to present the recent development of photoresponsive MPNs as therapeutic nanomedicines. This review will summarize four major areas separately, namely platinum-containing polymers, zinc-containing polymers, iridium-containing polymers and ruthenium-containing polymers. Representative MPNs of each type are discussed in terms of their design strategies, fabrication methods, and working mechanisms. Current challenges and future perspectives in this field are also highlighted.

Platinum-Containing Supramolecular Drug Self-Delivery Nanomicelles for Efficient Synergistic Combination Chemotherapy

Supramolecular drug self-delivery systems (SDSDSs) involving active drugs as building blocks linked by supramolecular interactions have been well defined as an advanced chemotherapy strategy. However, the lack of detecting release of drugs from SDSDSs at specific tumor sites inevitably leads to unsatisfactory therapeutic effects, owing to the lack of information regarding the administration of these drugs. In this work, predesigned platinum-containing supramolecular drug self-delivery nanomicelles (SDSDNMs) were employed to synchronously realize drug monitoring by computed tomography imaging, immediately reflecting the evolution of drug release and real-time treatment at the tumor site. The appropriate administration dosage (1.2 mg mL^-1,100 μL) and the injection interval (once every 3 days) needed to guide the antitumor activity of SDSDNMs were then defined, thereby attaining the aim of efficient synergistic combination chemotherapy. In vivo tumor inhibition and histological analyses showed that SDSDNMs exhibited a strong tumor inhibition effect and good safety with respect to normal organs. Such a supramolecular drug self-delivery strategy with monitored functions may offer new potential opportunities for application in the field of synergistic combination chemotherapy.

Sequential delivery of dual drugs with nanostructured lipid carriers for improving synergistic tumor treatment effect

To improve synergistic anticancer efficacy and minimize the adverse effects of chemotherapeutic drugs, temozolomide (TMZ) and curcumin (CUR) co-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were prepared by microemulsion in this study. And the physicochemical properties, drug release behavior, intracellular uptake efficiency, in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects of TMZ/CUR-NLCs were evaluated. TMZ/CUR-NLCs showed enhanced inhibitory effects on glioma cells compared to single drug loaded NLCs, which may be owing to that the quickly released CUR can sensitize the cancer cells to TMZ. The inhibitory mechanism is a combination of S phase cell cycle arrest associated with induced apoptosis. Notably, TMZ/CUR-NLCs can accumulate at brain and tumor sites effectively and perform a significant synergistic anticancer effect in vivo. More importantly, the toxic effects of TMZ/CUR-NLCs on major organs and normal cells at the same therapeutic dosage were not observed. In conclusion, NLCs are promising nanocarriers for delivering dual chemotherapeutic drugs sequentially, showing potentials in the synergistic treatment of tumors while reducing adverse effects both in vitro and in vivo.

Photoactivated polyprodrug nanoparticles for effective light-controlled Pt(iv) and siRNA codelivery to achieve synergistic cancer therapy

Endo/lysosomal escape and the subsequent controllable/precise release of drugs and genes are key challenges for efficient synergistic cancer therapy. Herein, we report a photoactivated polyprodrug nanoparticle system (PPNPsiRNA) centered on effective light-controlled codelivery of Pt(iv) prodrug and siRNA for synergistic cancer therapy. Under green-light irradiation, PPNPsiRNA can sustainedly generate oxygen-independent azidyl radicals to facilitate endo/lysosomal escape through the photochemical internalization (PCI) mechanism. Besides, concurrent Pt(ii) release and siRNA unpacking could occur in a controllable manner after the decomposition of Pt(iv), main chain shattering of photoactivated polyprodrug and the PPNPsiRNA disassociation. Based on these innovative features, excellent synergistic therapeutic efficacy of chemo- and RNAi therapies of PPNPsiBcl-2 could be achieved on ovarian cancer cells under light irradiation. The facile synthesized and prepared photoactivatable polyprodrug nanoparticle system provides a new strategy for effective gene/drug codelivery, where controllable endo/lysosomal escape and the subsequent drug/gene release/unpacking play vital roles, which could be adopted as a versatile codelivery nanoplatform for the treatment of various cancers.

A pH-sensitive nanoagent self-assembled from a highly negatively-charged phthalocyanine with excellent biosafety for photothermal therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, the development of highly efficient photothermal agents with excellent biosafety, particularly with low liver retention, is very meaningful for clinical applications, but it is also challenging. We herein prepared a pH-sensitive nanoagent (NanoPc3) by the self-assembly of a zinc(ii) phthalocyanine substituted with hexadeca-sulphonates linked by hydrazone bonds for photoacoustic imaging and PTT. Due to the highly negative surface potential (-30.80 mV in water), NanoPc3 could effectively escape the phagocytosis of the reticuloendothelial system and be rapidly cleared from normal tissues, leading to little accumulation in the liver and excellent biosafety. The highly negatively-charged NanoPc3 changed into nearly neutral nanoparticles (NanoPc3H) under slightly acidic conditions, resulting in enhanced cellular uptake and retention time in tumor tissues. Moreover, the tumor of H22 tumor-bearing mice treated with NanoPc3 almost disappeared, suggesting an outstanding photothermal antitumor effect. NanoPc3 also hardly showed skin phototoxicity under irradiation. Its excellent antitumor effect and biosafety make NanoPc3 highly promising in clinical applications. This work will provide a new strategy for the design of tumor-targeted photothermal nanoagents with high biosafety.

Polymeric Systems Containing Supramolecular Coordination Complexes for Drug Delivery

Cancer has become a common disease that seriously endangers human health and life. Up to now, the essential treatment method has been drug therapy, and drug delivery plays an important role in cancer therapy. To improve the efficiency of drug therapy, researchers are committed to improving drug delivery methods to enhance drug pharmacokinetics and cancer accumulation. Supramolecular coordination complexes (SCCs) with well-defined shapes and sizes are formed through the coordination between diverse functional organic ligands and metal ions, and they have emerged as potential components in drug delivery and cancer therapy. In particular, micelles or vesicles with the required biocompatibility and stability are synthesized using SCC-containing polymeric systems to develop novel carriers for drug delivery that possess combined properties and extended system tunability. In this study, the research status of SCC-containing polymeric systems as drug carriers and adjuvants for cancer treatment is reviewed, and a special focus is given to their design and preparation.

Rational Design of Near-Infrared-Absorbing Pt(II)-Chelated Azadipyrromethene Dyes as a New Generation of Photosensitizers for Synergistic Phototherapy

Pt(II) photosensitizers are emerging as novel Pt anticancer agents for cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) to avoid uncontrollable toxicity of cisplatin. However, the application of Pt(II) photosensitizers is limited by tumor hypoxia and the poor penetration depth of excitation light. To overcome these drawbacks, exploiting the next generation of Pt anticancer agents is of urgent need. According to theoretical calculations, novel near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing Pt(II)-chelated azadipyrromethene dyes (PtDP-X, where X = N, C, and S) were designed. Importantly, spin-orbit coupling of the Pt atom could promote the intersystem crossing of a singlet-to-triplet transition for converting oxygen to singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and the azadipyrromethene skeleton could provide a strong photothermal effect. As expected, PtDP-X exhibited intense NIR absorption and synergistic PDT and photothermal effects with low dark cytotoxicity. Furthermore, water-soluble and biocompatible PtDP-N nanoparticles (PtDP-N NPs) were prepared that achieved effective tumor cell elimination with low side effects under 730 nm light irradiation in vitro and in vivo. This pioneering work could push the exploitation of NIR-absorbing metal-chelated azadipyrromethene dyes, so as to promote the positive evolution of phototherapy agents.